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CROWN THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY 



VOL. XXVI. 
EUCKEN'S THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 



Crown ZE beolOQica l Xibtats 

WORKS ALREADY PUBLISHED 



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Descriptive Prospectus on Application. 



THE 

LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

AN INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY 



BY 

RUDOLF EUCKEN 

PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN JENA 



TRANSLATED BY 

F. L. POGSON, M.A. 



SECOND EDITION 
WITH INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR 



WILLIAMS & NORGATE 

14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON 

NEW YORK : G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 

1909 









PREFACE 

In the present volume philosophy is not re- 
garded as a known quantity, and no attempt 
is made to impart it to the individual by a 
comparative survey of its different depart- 
ments ; but it is treated as a problem — the pro- 
blem that it in reality continually becomes in 
the course of the centuries. The book re- 
presents a particular view of the nature of 
philosophy, and undertakes to show that it 
must be conceived in this way if it is to be 
equal to the demands which are made upon it 
by the life of mankind, and particularly by the 
present situation. By tracing out as simply 
and clearly as possible a few of the leading 
lines on which the age-long work of the human 
spirit has proceeded, it is shown that our spiri- 
tual life is not built up in peace and security 
on a given foundation, but that doubt and 



vi PREFACE 

conflict extend right down to the foundation, 
and that no progress of our inner life is possible 
without a reversal of our first impressions. 
If philosophy thus appears intimately bound 
up with all the striving of humanity and 
the necessity for spiritual self-preservation, 
then the re-emergence of a philosophy of life 
and existence becomes an urgent requirement 
in the complication and confusion of the present 
situation, and in the struggle which we have 
to wage to-day for a spiritual centre for our 
civilisation and a perception of the meaning 
and value of life. It is because this struggle 
concerns not merely the learned, but every 
man who does not despair of attaining to inner 
independence and true fulness of life, that it 
is hoped this book will appeal to a wider circle 
of readers, especially those who share the 
author's strong and painful conviction of the 
inadequacy and indeed the emptiness of 
modern civilisation, in spite of all its outer 
ostentation. RUDOLF EUCKEN. 

Jena, May 1908. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE 
AUTHOR 

It may render the present volume easier to 
understand if the author endeavours to sketch 
in a few words what he aims at accomplishing. 
My efforts have been inspired by the strong 
feeling that the present spiritual situation is 
highly unsatisfactory, and in particular that 
there is a sharp opposition which divides 
mankind and depresses the level of life. The 
greatness of our age lies in work, in the sub- 
jection and shaping of the world of objects 
to human ends : this work has gained more 
and more brilliant triumphs, and has altered 
the whole of our existence. But these triumphs 
have not been accompanied by a correspond- 
ing growth in the content of life and the soul 
of man. Work directs our efforts towards 



viii INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR 

external ends, and thus brings into play 
only a part, and indeed a more and more 
insignificant part, of our faculties. Hence all 
technical achievements do not preserve us 
from inner emptiness : work overwhelms our 
soul and makes us to a continually increasing 
extent a mere means and instrument of its 
restless activity. In opposition to this a 
counter - movement has lately arisen ; man 
tears^ himself away from work, and opposes 
to it his own subjective condition ; he seeks 
happiness more especially by treating life as 
an art, by cultivating refined and pleasurable 
emotions, by shaking off the burden of matter 
and the objective world. But the asstheticism 
which aims at transforming the whole of ex- 
istence into pleasure and enjoyment provides 
it with no high aims and no real content : 
it makes life a mere play on the surface of 
things, which may be attractive and delightful 
for a certain time, but which in the end is 
bound to produce weariness and repulsion. 
Hence it becomes a matter of importance 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR ix 

to rise above the opposition between soulless 
work and empty subjectivism ; this, however, 
cannot possibly be accomplished from the out- 
side, but requires the strenuous exertion and 
deepening of life itself. To help towards this 
end is the special task of philosophy, which is 
thus seen to be indispensable to humanity, 
for it is philosophy which can best co-ordinate 
life into a whole, investigate the specific 
character of the whole so formed, press for- 
ward from the outer appearance to the inner 
depths, weigh the significance of each element 
in the universe, and try to ascertain the mean- 
ing of the whole. But any such thorough 
investigation of life must make it evident that 
human life — in a large measure, at any rate 
— falls within a wider concept of Nature, 
and displays a close kinship with the animal 
world. It is equally evident, however, that the 
possibilities of human life are by no means 
entirely exhausted in the life of Nature, but 
that with it a new stage of reality arises, 
which we call spiritual. This stage does not 



x INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR 

merely exhibit particular new qualities, but 
also involves an entirely new kind of exist- 
ence : psychical life, which, in the stages below 
the human, forms a mere appendage and 
serves only to promote physical self-pre- 
servation, here first reaches independence, 
gives rise to entirely new realities and values, 
and forms a realm which is co-ordinated 
into a whole by internal connections. This 
whole cannot possibly be set down as 
a merely human product ; it must spring 
from the universe and thence be communi- 
cated to man. In appropriating it he appears 
as a being who has a share in a cosmic 
movement and is called upon to further it. 
But the spiritual life is no mere possession to 
be enjoyed by man. His average existence 
usually forms a turbid medley in which nature 
is strong and spirituality weak. Hence the 
object to be aimed at is first to build up in 
opposition to this average life a realm of 
genuine spirituality by means of united work, 
and then to raise humanity up to it. This 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR xi 

transforms the whole of our existence into 
a problem and a task ; at every point life 
must be raised to an essentially higher level, 
a reversal of its previous course must be 
accomplished ; our view of the world and 
the kind of life we lead must be given a 
specific shape ; humanity as a whole has here 
a common work to carry out. From this 
starting-point a new idealism is developed, 
a philosophy which may be termed activism. 
This activism differs both from the older 
speculation and from modern Pragmatism. 
From the former it is distinguished by its 
repudiation of intellectualism, by its ground- 
ing of knowledge on life, and by its constant 
return to the content of life as the funda- 
mental and controlling fact. From Pragma- 
tism it is differentiated by the fact that it 
does not make the welfare of the mere man, 
whether as an individual or in society, its 
leading aim, but sees in man the emergence 
of something superhuman, divine, and eternal, 
and makes this the sure guiding star of its 



xii INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR 

efforts ; by this means it raises them above 
the contingency of the individual and the 
vicissitudes of time, and gives to man's life 
a worthy content. 

But where endeavour is thus concentrated 
chiefly on the content and connections of life, 
the consideration of the general movement of 
history will acquire great significance. For 
the spiritual life does not lie ready to hand 
in the consciousness of individuals ; it reveals 
to us its depths and its goals only through 
manifold experiences and hard struggles ; 
these experiences and struggles, with the 
development of spiritual life which they have 
brought about, form the heart and core of 
the movement of history. Hence history, 
when regarded from the philosophical point 
of view, leads us to consider the height of 
spiritual life which has been already attained ; 
not only so, but with regard to the different 
leading problems of philosophy, the process 
of tracing out the fate they have met with 
in the course of the centuries is an excellent 






INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR xiii 

means of taking bearings and of seeing both 
what in them is permanently necessary, and 
what in this connection the present requires 
from the thinker. This attention to history 
is not meant to alienate us from the present, 
but, by increasing our philosophical insight, 
it should reveal to us a wider and richer 
present than that of the mere moment. This 
is the justification for the attempt made in 
this volume to fix our position with regard 
to the present tasks of philosophy by means 
of an historical survey. 

RUDOLF EUCKEN. 

Jena. 



TRANSLATOR'S NOTE 

It is my pleasant duty to thank the friends 
who have helped me in various ways. The 
translation owes much to my discussions with 
Mr G. G. Berry, whose keen insight has 
cleared up many a difficulty. I am also much 
indebted to Mr W. R. Boyce Gibson for 
generously allowing me to see in manuscript 
the concluding portion of his forthcoming 
translation of Prof. Eucken's Lebensanschau- 
ungen, and for giving me the benefit in other 
ways of his intimate knowledge of Prof. 
Eucken's philosophy. To Prof. L. P. Jacks 
I owe the correct interpretation of the passage 
from Hegel quoted on p. 54. The translation 
in the "English and Foreign Philosophical 
Library " does not seem to bring out the real 
meaning, but it was unfortunately too late to 



xvi TRANSLATOR'S NOTE 

alter it. Finally, I am greatly indebted to 
Prof. Eucken himself for courteously giving 
me information on a considerable number of 
doubtful points. For any errors that there 
may be, I, of course, am solely responsible. 

F. L. POGSON. 

Oxford, December 1908. 



CONTENTS 



PAGES 



INTRODUCTION 1-29 

Philosophy the queen of sciences, I ; ancient philosophy, 
2 ; religion and philosophy, 2 ; philosophy and its oppon- 
ents, 3 ; internal conflicts of philosophy, 4 ; the aim of 
philosophy, 5-7 ; the influence of philosophy, 8 ; philo- 
sophy as the representative of necessities of thought, 9-1 1 ; 
philosophy and life, 11-14 ; spiritual life, 15-20 ; history, 
philosophy, and the spiritual life, 21-29. 



CHAPTER I 

Unity and Multiplicity ..... 30-103 

The systematisation of life, 30 ; demand for unification, 
30 ; Greek philosophy and unity, 32-34 ; Plato's doctrine 
of ideas, 35 ; Aristotle's scheme of life, 37-40 ; the creative 
activity of art, 40 ; philosophy and universal reason, 42 ; 
the function of religion, 43 ; Plotinus and the search for 
unity, 44 ; unity and the spiritual life, 46 ; mysticism, 47 ; 
Christianity and unity, 49 ; the ethical conception of God. 
49 ; the Christian conception of God. 50 ; the Greek 
conception of the Deity, 51 ; exaltation of the individual, 
53 ; the Church and individual freedom, 55 ; contradictions 
of Christianity. 55 ; the absorption of Christianity by the 
Church, 57-59 ; Scholasticism, 61 ; freedom, 63-68 ; 
modern science and its aims, 68-^2 ; new forms and aims 
of philosophy, 72 et seq. ; individualism and society, 83 ; 
personality and the world, 84 ; civilisation and the 
spiritual life, 87 ; German philosophy, 88 ; the medieval 
ecclesiastical system, 92 ; history and the spiritual life, 
94 ; philosophy and the spiritual life, 100-103. 



xviii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER II 

PAGES 

Change and Persistence — Time and Eternity i 04-181 

The endlessness of time and the longing for eternity, 105 ; 
religion and its influences, 106 ; Greek philosophy and its 
influence, 107-1 12 ; the search for the persistent, 112-1 13 ; 
the Greek ideal of life, 115; eternal rest the supreme goal 
of religion, 117 ; the Christian scheme of life, 119-123 ; 
the Church the guardian of unchangeable truth, 124 ; 
classical antiquity and the beginnings of Christianity, 126 ; 
Scholasticism, 126; mysticism, 127; persistence and medi- 
evalism, 128 ; the Renaissance and the 'Reformation, 132 ; 
" middle ages": derivation of the term, 133; the 
doctrine of evolution, 135 et seq. ; the conception of 
evolution in Faust, 139 ; time and eternity, 139 et seq. ; 
three phases of evolution, 140- 141 ; natural science and 
Positivism, 141 ; co ordination needed in spiritual work, 
145 ; modern philosophy, 146 ; historical modes of thought, 
151 ; natural law, 153 ; the futility of a restless life, 157 ; 
the rejuvenescence of the old Mysticism, 159 ; rationalism 
and optimism, 161 ; historical evolution an absurdity, 
163 ; the medieval system of the Roman Catholic Church, 
164-167 ; the illusory recourse to history, 167-168 ; in- 
dependent work, 168 ; the movement of history, 169 ; 
faith in the ultimate rationality of reality the basis of 
spiritual life, 176 ; the co-operation of philosophy and the 
reconciliation of time and eternity, 178-181. 

CHAPTER III 

The Outer World and the Inner World . 182-274 

The need and use of philosophy, 182-184; the two 
worlds, 183^^. ; dualism, 185-186; materialism, 187; 
spiritualism, 188; monism, 188-190 ; the relation between 
idealism and naturalism, 193-199; Greek idealism and its 
complications, 199-208 ; the later ages of antiquity and 
the two worlds, 208-210 ; Christianity and the two 
worlds, 211-218; Christianity the subject of constant 
strife, 218 ; the fundamental conception of Christianity, 
219 ; the Christian conception of the sacrament, 225 ; the 
trend of modern life and the relation of the two worlds, 
227-232 ; the scientific conception of the soul, 232 ; in- 
tellectual culture and the question, 234-238; modern 



CONTENTS xix 



natural science, 238-241 ; defects of naturalism, 246-249; 
spiritual life a new life, 256 ; religion and the spiritual 
life, 262-264 ; the creative activity of art, 264-266 ; 
science and the question, 266 ; the close connection of the 
spiritual with the natural, 270-273. 



CHAPTER IV 

The Problem of Truth ..... 275-333 

Truth and happiness : opposing conditions, 275 ; 
Augustine and Spinoza, 277-278 ; the conception of 
truth, 280-283 ; the classical idea of truth, 284-293 ; 
Scepticism and truth, 291 ; Christianity and the question, 
294-302 ; faith the way to truth, 294-296 ; difficulties re- 
garding faith, 296 ; the Roman Catholic Church and faith, 
297-298 ; faith, the remover of doubt, itself an object of 
doubt, 302; the Enlightenment, 307-313; critical philo- 
sophy, 313-319 ; constructive speculation, 319-321 ; 
Positivism, 322 ; Pragmatism, 322-326 ; truth and meta- 
physics, 322-326 ; modern philosophy and truth, 327-333. 

CHAPTER V 

The Problem of Happiness .... 334-394 

Work and happiness, 334 ; the craving after happiness, 
335-337 ; a survey of world history in connection with 
happiness, 337 et seq. ; the Greek idea of happiness, 338— 
339 ; Plato's conception of happiness, 340-342 ; Aristotle 
and happiness, 343-345 ; an examination of the ideal of 
happiness of the great classical thinkers, 345-357; Plotinus' 
ideal of happiness, 350-355 ; the Christian pursuit of 
happiness, 357 ; the Christian conception of pain, 360- 
363 ; modern idea of happiness, 366-373 ; limitations of 
knowledge and complications arising therefrom, 373 et 
seq. ; aesthetic culture, 383-384 ; happiness and the 
question of personality, 384-386 ; philosophy and happi- 
ness, 391-394. 

CONCLUSION . .... 395-403 



THE 

LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

INTRODUCTION 

That philosophy is not only full of problems, 

but that philosophy itself as a whole is and 

remains a problem is shown by the varied 

estimation in which it has been held and the 

disputed place which it occupies in the life of 

mankind. On the one hand it is called the 

queen of the sciences, and a life dedicated to 

it seems the acme of human existence ; minds 

of the highest rank have laboured to serve it, 

and it has often intervened with great effect 

to modify the whole condition of humanity. 

This modifying influence, moreover, has 

appeared in a great variety of ramifications. 

1 



2 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

At one time, as in the case of Plato, philosophy 
has wrested pure ideals from the dark tangle 
of everyday life and has held them up as sure 
guiding stars to action. At another time, as 
in the case of Aristotle, it has sought to grasp 
the fulness of reality in a unified whole and to 
penetrate the whole of life as an organizing 
influence. At still another time, as in the 
later ages of antiquity, it has been a support 
and finally a consolation amid the cares and 
troubles of life. In modern times again it 
has acted as an influence in liberating men's 
minds and as a torch of advancing culture. 
Moreover, it has in addition carried out a 
vigorous examination of the traditional condi- 
tion of life and has sought to enlighten men in 
the most thoroughgoing way as to the limits 
of their powers. No great spiritual achieve- 
ment has seemed possible without the help 
and co-operation of philosophy ; whenever it 
has been wanting life has lost in spontaneity, 
in freedom of movement, in depth. Religion 
especially has often enough experienced this 



INTRODUCTION 3 

to its grave injury. When we follow this line 
of thought philosophy appears as an indispens- 
able and most important part of the spiritual 
possessions of humanity. 

But on the other hand every survey "of 
human experience shows that at all times 
philosophy has had its zealous opponents, who 
have declared that it was superfluous and 
indeed have rejected it as harmful. This is 
the case with the specialist, who believes that 
the work of knowledge is completely defined 
when the world has been divided up among 
the different scientific disciplines ; with the 
practical man who regards brooding and reflec- 
tion as a hindrance to keenness of action ; and, 
finally, with the believer in positive religion, 
who thinks that philosophy undermines the 
security of faith and fills men with proud self- 
confidence. But more dangerous than any 
attack from without is the fact that philosophy 
is uncertain of itself, that its work is dislocated, 
that it is divided into different schools, each 
one of which, in order to maintain itself, thinks 



4 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

it necessary to refute all the others. This con- 
flict threatens to remain unsettled and without 
result ; it seems in the course of the centuries 
to grow rather than to diminish. For whether 
the Sophists were in the right with their 
subjectivism, or Socrates with his doctrine of 
concepts, whether happiness in life is to be 
sought by the way of the Stoa or by that of 
Epicurus, is still an open question. Of course 
the individual actors have withdrawn from the 
stage, but their ideas have remained and 
passionately continue the fight, like the spirits 
on the Catalaunian Fields. From this stand- 
point it remains incomprehensible how philo- 
sophy can have gained a deep influence over 
thought and life ; but if this influence must be 
accepted as an indisputable fact, we are con- 
fronted by a riddle which necessarily impels 
us to take our bearings both as to the task and 
the position of philosophy. 

It is true that an attempt has been made to 
get rid of the above contradiction by means of 
a conception of philosophy which would make 



INTRODUCTION 5 

it acceptable to all : the only question is 
whether, in such a case, everything is not lost 
which lends it independence and value. In 
earlier times as well as at the present day 
it has often been held up as the sole aim of 
philosophy to co-ordinate the work of the 
different sciences and to blend their results 
into a unified picture : the more investiga- 
tion becomes specialized, it is said, the more 
necessary is a special discipline which should 
concern itself with any unity that may 
be left ; in surveying and discussing the pre- 
suppositions, the methods, and the results of 
the individual sciences, philosophy has an 
important task to which no objection can be 
raised. No doubt there is a task for philo- 
sophy here, but every attempt to gain a more 
exact conception of it gives rise to com- 
plications and difference of opinion. How are 
we to conceive of this surveying and co- 
ordinating activity ? If it is bound to take 
the sciences as they come, if it has no right 
of revision, if it can venture on no further 



6 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

development, then to be sure it has escaped 
all danger, but at the same time it has lost all 
significance. For if it is thus limited it 
becomes merely a registering of the results of 
the particular sciences, an encyclopaedia which 
is not a genuine science, though a generous 
use of language might give it the name. In 
particular it is hard to see how a mere encyclo- 
paedia could have exerted upon thought and 
life those deeply disturbing and fruitfully 
elevating influences which the examples of 
Plato and Kant are enough to show have 
actually proceeded from it. And what if the 
individual sciences do not harmonize without 
demur, if bitter conflicts arise, if, for example, 
one department of science contends for the 
exclusive operation of mechanical causality, 
but another craves at least some shred of 
freedom therefrom ? Shall philosophy quietly 
suffer such a contradiction to remain and be 
ready to submit to it ? According to the 
above conception it would not have the 
slightest remedy. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

On the other hand one who desiderates for 
philosophy a separate domain of activity may 
perhaps be inclined to think that it carries out 
a synthesis of the manifold in accordance with 
the particular nature of the contemplating 
subject; that it is not so much a science 
governed by strict rules as an unfettered art, 
and that it therefore remains inseparably bound 
up with the nature of the individual. Ac- 
cording to this conception, philosophy would 
offer an incalculable variety of pictures of the 
world, some of which would quickly fade, 
while to others their inherent spiritual power 
would give the capacity to subjugate men's 
minds and to last for thousands of years. 
This view seems to be favoured by the fact 
that the history of philosophy shows us a great 
abundance of figures. There is no doubt that 
this conception contains a certain amount of 
truth ; the subjective element is particularly 
important in philosophy, for a man's philosophy 
can least of all be separated from the whole 
of his personality. But on the other hand 



8 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

the influence which philosophy has exercised 
throughout history remains unexplained. For 
how could subjective pictures of that kind 
cause such passionate excitement and stir, or 
give rise to so much love and hate ? Besides 
this, philosophy does not merely offer an 
unlimited number of individual pictures, but 
it also shows persistent types which seem to 
embody the fundamental tendencies of human 
existence and effort. Hellenism especially has 
given rise to an abundance of types to which 
humanity has remained faithful as it has gone 
on its way, and which are continually producing 
new effects. In spite of all the progress of 
knowledge, Platonism and Aristotelianism, 
Stoicism and Epicureanism still maintain their 
position. Besides, it would be incompre- 
hensible how philosophy as a purely individual 
and subjective reflection of reality could affect 
the contents of thought and alter the conditions 
of life, or how it could be for humanity a source 
of freedom, of security, and of rejuvenation. 
Philosophy has been often enough a com- 



INTRODUCTION 9 

pelling force which has transformed the whole 
of the work of the spirit. Whence this com- 
pulsion if it rests purely on the caprice of the 
individual ? 

It is true that an attempt has been made to 
avoid the danger of such a relapse into pure 
subjectivity by regarding philosophy as the 
representative of necessities of thought which 
have not been sufficiently emphasized in every- 
day life and in the other sciences. By un- 
folding and fully developing these necessities 
philosophy has the right and the duty of 
transcending its starting-point and reorganiz- 
ing its representation of reality. It thus 
acquires compelling force and is bound, in 
particular, to set itself the task of radically 
removing all the contradictions which appear 
in our world of thought. This seems to lift 
its task above the risk of pure subjectivity and 
to make it a matter which concerns the whole 
of humanity. But this conception, too, con- 
tains more complications than are apparent at 
first sight. The experience of history shows 



10 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

that there is no unanimity as to the exact 
nature of that which is to count as a necessity 
of thought. Great thinkers have absolutely 
contradicted one another on this subject: 
Hegel, for example, saw in contradictions a 
power favourable to the production and pro- 
motion of spiritual life, while to Herbart, on 
the contrary, they seemed absolutely intoler- 
able. Does not, then, the search for necessities 
of thought bring us back to the very subject- 
ivity beyond which it was to carry us ? And 
we may be doubtful of the right of a thinking 
which rests purely upon itself to impose its 
demands on the totality of things. Thinking, 
in its immediateness, is something which goes 
on in man : if things are to conform to thought, 
does there not arise a merely human interpreta- 
tion of reality which may be quite foreign to 
reality itself? But the strongest motive in 
the pursuit of truth is the desire to get beyond 
the small and narrow circle of the merely 
human and to gain full participation in the 
life of things themselves, in the breadth and 



INTRODUCTION 11 

truth of the universe. It is, above all, this 
inner expansion and liberation, this carrying 
of man beyond himself, which makes the work 
of great thinkers valuable and helpful to us ; 
a merely human truth is a contradiction in 
terms, is no truth at all. If we cannot thus 
be sure of some sort of inner connection with 
the universe in our thinking, if we cannot 
found our thinking on a wider and deeper 
life, then philosophy does not exist in the 
sense in which it was understood at the height 
of its activity, and in which it has, as a matter 
of fact, influenced mankind. 

We are thus thrown back from thought on 
to life — life as it co-ordinates itself from within 
to some sort of unified whole, directs its powers 
to particular ends, and adjusts itself to the 
totality of its environment. We need only 
examine the individual thinkers more exactly 
as regards the inner texture of their work and 
the aims which have actuated them, to become 
aware that, behind what stands before us as 
fully accomplished, there lies a particular 



12 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

shaping of life, and that here is the point of 
division which separates thinkers and drives 
them to do battle with one another. Only 
because it was founded in such a life has 
thought attained a finished form as well as a 
constraining necessity ; only from this starting- 
point has it gained the power of taking reality 
up into itself and striving after inner illumina- 
tion. The products of thinking have varied 
very largely for the reason that, corresponding 
to the connection with life which is the founda- 
tion of thought, the work of knowledge has 
been from the first conceived differently. The 
failure to recognize this connection between 
thought and life is mostly to blame for the 
fact that the strife of the philosophers with 
one another has turned out to be so unedifying 
and so fruitless. The contest always ran the 
risk of moving in a circle, because it never got 
back to the point where in reality the division 
lies, and because it treated as the main thing 
what was the effect of deeper causes. This 
connection of thought with life enables us also 



INTRODUCTION 13 

to understand that in the ease of philosophy 
the work of knowledge is so closely connected 
with the nature of the personality. 

But this connection of thought with life 
does not seem to lead us out of our complica- 
tions to a secure standpoint. The danger 
again arises of a wide separation and division 
of mankind into separate circles. For, after 
all, different types of life do develop and range 
themselves side by side and put forth equal 
claims. Who is to decide to which of them 
belongs the higher right and leadership, and 
which, therefore, may produce a general picture 
of reality that should be reckoned as definitive ? 
Besides, this gives no explanation how a move- 
ment which arises in man could go beyond 
him, bring him into connection with the great 
world, and put him in possession of its meaning. 
And without this there is no knowledge of 
truth in the sense in which philosophy strives 
to attain it. 

All these discussions come in the end to 
this, that the existence of philosophy is bound 



14 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

up with definite conditions which are by no 
means perfectly obvious, and which no mere 
acuteness or reflection can bring to light, but 
as to whose existence or non-existence only 
experience can decide. If thought is to have 
a root and a basis in life, and if at the same 
time it is to have a constraining power and a 
character of universality, there is only one 
possibility. There must appear within reach 
of man a life which can rise above divisions 
and can counteract them, a life, further, which 
can develop out of its own movement compre- 
hensive connections and, indeed, can show 
itself active in moulding the world. Finally, 
it must be a life which not only touches and 
interprets what it lays hold of from the outside, 
but shapes it from within and admits it to its 
own depths. Only if man is able in this way 
to share in a universal life and thereby outgrow 
the limits of his particular nature, can his 
thinking advance from a mere cognition of 
things to a true knowledge. Thus there 
results the possibility and, indeed, the neces- 



INTRODUCTION 15 

sity of a new way of looking at the world in 
contrast to that practised by the individual 
sciences. 

The question then is whether we have evi- 
dence of a life of this kind, which shapes our 
world and places us in a different fundamental 
relationship to reality. We believe that we 
can confidently answer this question in the 
affirmative. For we only need to gain a 
keener apprehension of what is called spiritual 
life, and to set it in sharper relief against the 
environment in which human existence in- 
volves it, to become aware that it offers the 
very thing which we desire and seek. Spiritual 
life is, above all, the formation of a coherent 
system in life. In it not merely the poten- 
tialities of the subject are aroused and height- 
ened, but confronting the subject there arises 
a field, and indeed a whole kingdom, of an ob- 
jective nature. Subject and object are compre- 
hended in a self-contained activity and assist 
each other's further development. Nothing 
short of such a comprehension of the two sides 



16 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

can supply life with contents and values which, 
with all their inwardness, possess an indubitable 
superiority over all merely human powers and 
opinions. It is in this way that whole pro- 
vinces such as science and art, jurisprudence 
and morality, grow up and develop their own 
contents, their own motives, their own laws. 
These provinces, however, strive towards unity 
and finally coalesce in a unified world. In 
fact, they belong on the subjective side from 
the very beginning to such a unified whole, 
and only in connection with it can they 
solve their own problem. Thus we find that 
within man there is something which goes 
beyond him ; he himself must become some- 
thing different, and his whole life assumes 
the form of a problem when a unified 
world thus makes its appearance in his life 
and distinguishes itself from that which is 
merely human. 

But what is the significance of this new life 
in relation to the whole of reality ? This can 
only be estimated by comparing it with that 



INTRODUCTION 17 

from which it distinguishes itself and which it 
strives to transcend. In the first place, the 
realm of nature surrounds us all and penetrates 
deep into the human soul. Here we see reality 
dissected into purely individual elements. Life 
is resolved into the relations of these elements ; 
it passes in purely individual processes, and 
does not get beyond mere matter-of-fact. For 
there exists here no life of the whole, which 
should comprehend the diversity, take it up 
into itself and thence draw profit. But the 
amount of psychical life which exists here has 
not yet reached the stage at which it might be 
called an individual life. For in the realm of 
nature psychical life does not attain any in- 
dependence ; it remains a mere concomitant 
phenomenon. It does not stand out as an end 
in itself, but forms a mere means and instru- 
ment for the preservation of living beings in 
the hard struggle for existence. But the great 
change that ensues when spiritual life comes 
upon the scene is that now the inner life 
becomes independent and begins to prepare 



18 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

for itself a world of its own. This change, 
with its introduction of an essentially new 
kind of life, and its construction of a world 
from within, with its own particular contents, 
values, and order, can never be the work of 
man by himself. It is only to be understood 
as a movement of the whole of reality itself, 
which surrounds man, takes hold of him, 
and drives him on. Thus the movement 
towards spiritual life appears as a movement 
of reality towards an independent conscious 
existence. A depth of the world is revealed 
which before was hidden, and this gives rise to 
a complete transformation which must produce 
an essentially new view of reality. But this 
new life, by the mere fact of its having con- 
structed a state of civilization which exists 
side by side with what is purely natural, has 
proved its power to make its way in opposition 
to pre-existing forces. The achievement of 
civilization, when at its height, in producing 
essentially new objects and essentially new 
human characters, can have been made possible 



INTRODUCTION 19 

only by the force of an independent spiritual 
life, seeking to unfold itself. 

With the recognition of this movement 
there is a change in the whole representation 
of our spiritual work. It is no longer accessory 
to the main body of reality, and it is not a 
private concern of man by himself, but in it 
we recognize a portion of a world-movement, 
of which mankind is the servant. From this 
standpoint, that work can claim superiority 
both over isolated individuals and over all 
mere subjectivism. 

But what is true of spiritual work generally 
applies also to philosophy. Man does not, 
out of his own inner consciousness and possibly 
quite at random, put a particular complexion 
on the world, but his philosophy can only 
possess truth and power so far as the life of 
the world comes to clear consciousness in it 
and reveals its own depth. The co-ordination 
of the manifold, which philosophy undertakes, 
cannot be imposed upon reality from the out- 
side, but must come from within it and conduce 



20 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

to its unfolding. The task of philosophy now 
is to enhance and thus to foster that co-ordina- 
tion in the work of thought. In opposition 
to the circumstances of humanity it will have 
to be the champion and enforcer of the neces- 
sities of the spiritual life, and bring home clearly 
to man the connections of that life. From 
this point of view it is quite comprehensible 
how, throughout the course of history, phil- 
osophy was bound to accompany the life and 
the struggles of humanity, and how it could 
lift them to a higher level. It was able to do 
this because it was not an opinion of man by 
himself, but because it was a work and a demand 
of the spiritual life. It is only as a philosophy 
of spiritual life in this sense that philosophy 
can attain to independence and maintain the 
position assigned to it by its friends. And 
from this point of view its work can be seen 
to be a connected task which is common to 
the whole of humanity. 

But at the same time, this conception ex- 
plains why philosophy is exposed to so much 



INTRODUCTION 21 

uncertainty and strife. For spiritual life is 
not something that is ready-made for us, but is 
a difficult problem — in fact, the problem of 
problems. Certainly our being must be some- 
how grounded in it if we are to make an 
effort after it, but as far as our consciousness 
and activity are concerned, we must first win 
it and make it our own : only thus can it gain 
a clear shape and a definite content. But this 
further opening up takes place in the indi- 
vidual not so much through reflection or 
imagination as through the labour of the 
whole and as the work of history. What first 
makes history in the distinctively human sense 
possible, is the fact that here a revelation 
of spiritual life gets started and gains ground 
as the development of a new stage of reality. 
But the testimony of experience shows that 
the course of this historical movement is by 
no means sure and simple. In the first place, 
spiritual life has no domain of its own in the 
human sphere and no independent starting- 
point, but it develops out of our life in 



22 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

nature and society and cannot dispense with 
it. In doing so it does not appear from the 
beginning as a whole, but starts from separate 
points and gradually extends to larger con- 
nections, which again may diverge from one 
another. And its progress through history 
is not orderly and sure, but resembles rather a 
groping and seeking. It makes a step forward, 
but encounters insurmountable obstacles and 
is often driven back a long way ; new starting 
points are tried, but they lead to a similar 
result. The life is often split into opposites, 
and then again the impulse towards reconcilia- 
tion gains the upper hand : much drops out of 
sight, only to come up again later and exercise 
new influence, and so the whole becomes more 
and more complicated and involved. In par- 
ticular a permanent complication proceeds 
from the relation of the spiritual life to man. 
Spiritual life stands in need of the feelings and 
faculties of man, and so far as it gains these it 
raises him above that which is merely human. 
But at the same time this merely human 



INTRODUCTION 23 

element persists and is always ready to drag 
down the spiritual life to its own level. It 
does this especially when no great spiritual 
tension and no powerful spiritual creative 
effort exercises a counteracting influence. At 
such times it almost appears as if this merely 
human element looked upon the spiritual life 
as an enemy, and would like to take vengeance 
on it for its troublesome interference. Noth- 
ing contributes more to impress a particular 
character on human history than the fact that 
spiritual life has to develop in the unsuitable 
and indeed hostile medium of human existence. 
But if spiritual life has often been dragged 
down to the level of the merely human, it has 
not submitted for any length of time to this 
degradation. It has always escaped again, 
and, however much it might be disintegrated, 
it has always made a fresh effort to regain 
its unity ; in fact, throughout all the mistakes 
and passions of men it has made substantial 
progress in self-realization. It has been able 
to liberate life and thought from the tyranny 



24 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

of the mere passing moment, and by separat- 
ing the temporal from the eternal, the human 
from the spiritual, to gather up the results of 
thousands of years, so as to be taken in at one 
view. It has been able to reawaken what to 
all external appearance had perished, and to 
hold fast everything that it recognized as 
valuable in a present which is above time and 
includes time. Philosophy in particular, just 
as spiritual life generally, takes its stand on 
this time-including present. History, however, 
appears on this view not as a kingdom of pure 
reason, but as a scene where a certain amount 
of reason wins through in the teeth of enormous 
resistance. 

From this point of view the movement of 
history, with its elevation of spiritual life above 
the position and caprice of mere man, gains a 
special significance for philosophy, and in fact 
becomes an introduction to a philosophy of 
the spiritual life. For, in revealing all that has 
been unfolded of independent spiritual life, it 
shows what possibilities our life contains of 



INTRODUCTION 25 

being raised to a higher inward level, and also 
what oppositions arise in this connection and 
have to be overcome in some way or other. 
It goes on to exhibit the conditions and the 
demands of spiritual creative effort, and the 
presuppositions and environment from which 
special kinds of spiritual life have sprung. It 
shows the dominating facts both within and 
as opposed to the spiritual life, and also the 
directions in which the movement progresses. 
It can further operate to free our work from 
all that is casual and temporary, and to bring 
it into line with the necessary course of spiritual 
life so far as it has been revealed in the history 
of the world. Our efforts will not only acquire 
thereby more breadth and freedom, but may 
also gain a stronger and securer position 
through the recognition of the great guiding 
lines of the general movement of history. 
Naturally all this can only take place according 
to the capacity of the individual life on which 
the task is laid of gaining an inner mastery 
over the materials provided by history. For 



26 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

without such individual exertion history cannot 
impart or teach anything: the contents of 
history must first be awakened and revivified 
by our own work before they can be of any 
significance or use to our own life. If we 
thus address ourselves to the spiritual content, 
the revivifying of the general movement of 
history takes the form of a comparative survey 
of the spiritual possessions which we have 
hitherto acquired, and a summons to develop 
and secure these possessions against the in- 
fluences and accidents of the moment. We 
need not waste any time in proving that the 
present, with its sharp oppositions, its violent 
cleavage, and ominous levelling down of life, 
and its want of any ruling aim, stands in 
particularly urgent need of being supplemented 
and developed in the way we have sketched. 
Historical study must press on with particular 
insistence to fresh philosophical work, to a 
creative activity which will transform phil- 
osophy by clearly proving the untenability 
of the present spiritual state and the necessity 



INTRODUCTION 27 

of a new type of culture. But in this respect 
the spiritual requirements which are involved, 
not so much in the time as in the general 
position in world history, are bound to set 
philosophy definite tasks and point it in 
definite directions. 

A treatment of history like this, which com- 
bines the tracing out of the rise and growth of 
spiritual life within the sphere of humanity with 
the search for a standpoint for philosophical 
work, can be undertaken in different ways. 
We desire to undertake it in such a way as 
to emphasize some of the leading lines of 
development, to exhibit the problems which 
there await us, and to show the movements, 
experiences, and revelations of life which have 
resulted from them. It may seem that out- 
wardly we are giving ourselves up entirely to 
history, but our aim is always directed towards 
philosophy. What history has brought us is 
not reckoned as merely past, but we try to 
make it present to us as living, and at the 
same time to gain from it points of support 



28 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

both for the guidance of spiritual life and for 
philosophy. In these leading lines we shall 
find common features, in fact an inner con- 
nection will be evident through all the diver- 
sity ; but a more exact estimation of this is to 
be made at the end. We thus arrange our 
sections so that we progress gradually from 
general sketches to a more definite content, 
and so allow the character and the demands 
of the whole to become continually more 
apparent. Let us then treat in succession the 
problems of unity and multiplicity, of rest and 
movement, of the outer and the inner worlds, 
and finally the problem of truth and the pro- 
blem of happiness. As far as material is con- 
cerned, let us limit our investigation to tracing 
out the movement from the rise of Greek 
civilization to the present day. This is not 
merely because it lies nearest to us externally, 
but also because no other historical complex 
contains so much spiritual movement or has 
produced such an abundance of life and, amid 
violent metamorphoses, has passed through so 



INTRODUCTION 29 

many experiences. But this is the point, above 
all, for philosophical contemplation. If we go 
through history in this way we do not lose 
ourselves in an incalculable vastness, but, with 
all the abundance of material, we are all the 
time at home. It is a kind of introspection, 
not so much of the individual as of the whole, 
which we are here striving after, and intro- 
spection is to-day, as at all times, the best 
approach to philosophy. 



CHAPTER 1 

Unity and Multiplicity 

Nature, as it lies open to our view, displays 
a mere juxtaposition of elements, with no inner 
connection. On the natural level life does not 
get beyond the stage of mere correlations. 
But on the other hand, wherever spiritual life 
makes itself felt we find the desire to sur- 
mount the stage of mere juxtaposition, to 
establish an inner connection, and, in fact, to 
systematize the whole of life. All the main 
directions in which our spiritual work finds 
its outlet involve the effort to overcome an 
opposition and the demand for some sort of 
unification. Thus the struggle for truth seeks 
to overcome the separation between men and 
things, between subject and object, between 

30 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 31 

thought and existence. With the good, in 
the narrower sense of the word, it is a case 
of getting free from the pettiness of the ego, 
breaking through the original narrowness, and 
attaining inner solidarity. Beauty too seeks 
to overcome an opposition in endeavouring to 
make the external conform completely to its 
own internal standards. But just as spiritual 
life exercises a unifying influence in an ex- 
ternal environment, so too, in itself, it strives 
to assume the form of a coherent whole and 
gives rise to an inner solidarity of work. It 
is a matter not for the individual man, but 
for the whole race ; it strives to attain not 
merely individual truths but a realm of 
truth, which envelops and holds together 
the individuals, and which, indeed, lays claim 
to a validity of its own, independent of man- 
kind. It is very much the same with the 
good and the beautiful ; however much con- 
troversy and dissension may prevail in this 
connection, even the controversy would be 
incomprehensible without the belief in a 



32 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

common truth and without the impelling 
power of this truth. 

But though the striving for unity is an 
incontestable and fundamental impulse of all 
spiritual life, it yet involves a difficult pro- 
blem, which cannot be attacked by the indivi- 
dual but only by the age-long toil of humanity. 
For the question is, how the unification can 
be attained, and what form the whole must 
assume in order to take up the diversity into 
itself and overcome the oppositions. Many 
different attempts and much unrest will meet 
the eyes of him who makes a spiritual pilgrim- 
age through the centuries. In accordance 
with our plan we begin with the life of the 
Greeks. 

From the very beginning the philosophy of 
the Greeks shows the impulse towards unity. 
Their first thinkers, the sages of Ionia, turn at 
once to the search for a single fundamental 
substance, and the Pythagoreans co-ordinate 
the wealth of phenomena into a coherent 
universe, a cosmos. Even the exclusiveness, 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 33 

of a unitary being finds early defenders in the 
Eleatics, and they do not shrink from reduc- 
ing multiplicity to mere appearance. But 
Greek life clings too closely to the rich 
diversity of reality to be able to give it up 
completely: hence the problem assumes the 
form of discovering a definite relation between 
unity and multiplicity, a firm co-ordination of 
the diversity of things. Its solution is reached 
in close connection with movements that take 
place in the general life of the time, in contact 
of the work of thought with the state of 
political and social development. As usually 
happens, the beginnings of this development 
show us individuals in strict subjection, in 
complete dependence on the order and custom 
of the community, under the yoke of autho- 
rity and tradition, which is not yet felt as 
oppressive. But gradually the individual gains 
in power, in freedom of movement, in inde- 
pendence ; he begins to inquire into the right 
and reason of the systems in which he finds 

himself; he holds himself continually more 

3 



84 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

aloof from them, and feels that he is personally 
responsible for his own life. But then the 
danger at once arises that the subject may 
break up all systems, make himself the 
measure of all things, and, as a logical con- 
sequence, recognize the validity of no ends 
except those that further his own well-being. 
This gives rise to the most dangerous crisis, 
and life appears likely to suffer a complete 
dissolution. The Sophists with their subjec- 
tivism make this very evident. In such a 
convulsion nothing can be of any assistance 
except man's own spiritual work : it is this 
alone which can attempt to build up from 
within the coherent system which the visible 
world no longer affords, and what it here 
undertook for the first time is in reality a 
problem of a lasting nature which our own 
day too must face. With the Greeks it was 
pre-eminently philosophy which took upon 
itself this problem. A solution was sought 
by affirming the existence of a world of 
thought raised above all human circumstances 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 85 

and opinions and firmly established over against 
them. Plato's doctrine of Ideas brings the 
power of genius to the execution of this task, 
and for him the constituents of that world 
more nearly acquire the character of forms 
endowed with fulness of life. These forms 
with all their diversity unite to form a whole ; 
the work of this whole, moreover, is to give 
movement and elevation to human existence ; 
it supplies it with a deeper foundation and the 
power of counteracting the distraction from 
which it previously suffered. On the basis 
of scientific work there thus arises an artistic 
ordering of life which brings about a peculiar 
combination of unity and multiplicity. The 
thought of the One takes precedence, but the 
Many are not in the least sacrificed, though 
each part must seek its place and its task within 
the whole in order to carry out its special work 
in this position. But it cannot do this without 
recognizing limits and overcoming the crude 
impulses of nature, and thus it is ennobled and, 
in fact, spiritualized by the whole. Thus life 



86 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

is organized from top to bottom, marked off 
into stages, made symmetrical and harmonious, 
and everything which is merely natural is 
brought under the dominion of the spirit. 

A movement of this kind affects human 
endeavour in all directions and gives it a 
peculiar character. On this view thought is 
not a critical sifting and analysing, a pressing 
forward to the most minute elements, but it is 
rather a comprehensive survey of the diversity 
of things, and a disentangling of the funda- 
mental structure of the universe from the 
chaos which it presents at first sight. Its 
main movement is from the whole to the 
parts, and it is especially the task of philoso- 
phical knowledge to put everything that exists 
and everything that happens in its proper 
place, and to understand it from what it does 
for the whole. And the psychic life of man 
has also a general work to perform, which 
includes its individual parts and stages. It is 
of special importance in the human com- 
munity to counteract the isolation of in- 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 37 

dividuals, with their caprice and selfishness. 
The thought arises of a state whose structure 
is based on knowledge and seeks to enforce 
its own realization. An essentially elevating 
effect is expected from the direction of the 
whole towards spiritual goods and from the 
division and organization of work by a grada- 
tion of classes. Even the severest conse- 
quences, such as the extraordinary communism 
of the higher classes, are not shirked if they 
seem to be necessary in order to strike at the 
root of egoism. But all this surrender to the 
whole does not mean any complete sacrifice of 
the individuals, for in this arrangement they 
satisfy their own nature as well, and thereby 
attain to complete happiness. 

Aristotle's scheme of life is closely related 
to Plato's, but still the modifications which he 
introduced are significant. Less importance 
is attached to the part played by art, and the 
power of co-ordination which results from 
taking the point of view of art is less em- 
phasized, though it is not entirely neglected. 



38 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

But, on the other hand, the classifying and 
organizing power of thought is given the 
widest scope, and it is especially the conception 
of the unfolding of life, of existence becoming 
fully active, that provides the guiding lines 
for thought. It is here in particular that 
human activity displays a systematic char- 
acter : the world, both in general and in detail, 
is regarded under the governing conception of 
an articulated whole, an organic unity of life. 
Aristotle is particularly successful in enforcing 
the idea that in the case of an organic living 
being a large number of organs and functions 
is subordinated to a comprehensive unity of 
life, and that it is only from this point of 
view, by help of the idea of an end, that 
they can be understood. This conception 
of an organism is finally transferred to the 
whole universe ; this too forms a complete 
and rounded unity which tolerates nothing 
"episodic." 1 Still more than in the case of 

1 Cf. Aristotle, Met. 1090 b 19, ovk Ioikc 8' rj <£vW 
€7T€t(ro8t(jiS7;s ovcra e/< rcov (patvofJiivwv fi)(T7r€p fxoxOrjpa TpayaiSta. 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 39 

Plato we thus find one fundamental conviction 
extending over all departments. Thinking 
becomes the logical organization of the whole 
of reality, and, while prepared to recognize all 
particularity, it never allows the individual 
to become separated from the whole. Simple 
and fundamental thoughts govern all depart- 
ments, and though they may appear to be 
disparate they are still kept together by the 
bond of analogy. Psychic life, too, is re- 
quired to develop every faculty, but there 
must be an activity of the whole which in- 
cludes all particular activities and measures 
them by its own standards. The superiority 
of the whole acquires particular force and 
vividness when we come to the idea of the 
state. Just as each member can only live 
and work in connection with the whole 
organism, man can only be fully man in the 
community. And thus it can be maintained 
that the state is prior to the individual. 
But at the same time the utmost differentia- 
tion is desired within the state, and the 



40 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

heart and soul of every man is called upon 
to co-operate. 

The combined work of both thinkers has 
held up to life a stable and coherent system, 
and satisfied in a characteristic way the desire 
for unity. Unification is attained by the 
alliance of clear thought with the creative 
activity of art. The main achievement of 
this philosophy is its vigorous and thorough 
organization of the whole range of existence ; 
it leaves nothing outside but takes up every- 
thing from the greatest to the least, gives it 
definite shape, and quickens and ennobles it. 
Man here displays his capacity of forming a 
whole in thought, retaining within this whole 
a rich diversity of elements, and making it a 
centre from which to bring the whole range 
of reality into an inwardly coherent system. 
The endeavour to attain unity in this manner 
has persisted throughout the whole course of 
history ; it has often entered upon new spheres 
of activity with rejuvenated powers, and seems 
to be indispensable for the spiritual appro- 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 41 

priation of the breadth and fulness of existence. 
But as a leading synthesis of life, this philo- 
sophy had presuppositions which met with a 
continually increasing opposition. Such a 
synthesis not only needs pre-eminent spiritual 
power to carry it out, but it also presupposes 
as objectively existing a tendency on the part 
of things towards union, an inner harmony of 
reality, which the further movement of life 
made continually more uncertain. In the 
first place, this synthesis of life did not retain 
its leading position in the following centuries. 
When the separation between philosophy and 
the particular sciences becomes wider, and the 
former comes to be regarded predominantly as 
wisdom in the conduct of life, we no longer 
find simple fundamental thoughts exercising 
control over the whole range of reality. In- 
dividuals are still less inclined to submit to 
the constraint which is commended by Plato 
and Aristotle. As the break-up of the old 
systematizations of life becomes increasingly 
apparent, men are more and more concerned 



42 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

to ensure that the individual shall stand firm 
on his own basis and be independent of all 
environment. Philosophy is particularly suc- 
cessful in this aim when it occupies man with 
the thought of the Universe, and promises him 
victory over every obstacle if he realizes 
strongly the presence of the Universal Reason. 
The complete emancipation of the individual 
finds its classical expression particularly in the 
doctrine of the Stoics : it is here that there 
arises the conception of a personality superior 
to the world, and participation in the universal 
thought lends dignity and value to human 
existence. Another result is that all men 
enter into an invisible connection, they become 
conscious of an inner relationship, a solidarity 
embracing all that is human. 

But if men are thrown on their own 
resources to grasp and realize the universal 
thought, it is only heroic individuals of 
original force who will succeed. But such 
men are scarce at all times, and this solution 
became especially unsatisfactory in propor- 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 43 

tion as the approaching break-up of the 
ancient world increased the feeling of in- 
security, of weakness, and of need. The per-' 
plexities of life finally appear too great for 
man to meet out of his own resources. This 
gives rise to a continually increasing craving 
after religion, and finally to a movement in 
the direction of religion. Hence the endeavour 
after unity now takes on a religious rather 
than an artistic character. Unity is now 
sought not so much by producing an all- 
embracing co-ordination of the diversity of 
things, as by recourse to an existence which 
is raised above all multiplicity and forms its 
ground. But although with the Greeks 
multiplicity was never degraded to mere 
appearance, as it was with the Indians, and 
though for this reason the Greeks never 
embraced an exclusive monotheism, yet they 
came more and more to attach significance 
to that which is individual only so far as it 
gives expression to the unity of the universe. 
This gives to life a powerful stimulus and 



44 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

impetus, but it involves the loss of the 
organizing influence which was exercised by 
the older creative activity. It was Plotinus 
in particular who gave a philosophical shape 
to the new tendency, and in this connection 
philosophy takes a quite new direction. It 
was formerly the function of religion to 
minister to the happiness and especially the 
tranquillity of man ; it was a mere means to 
his well-being ; but now the centre of gravity 
is transferred from individuals to the universe, 
and it is only from the universe that the 
individual receives life and being. We find 
here a single life which sustains and pervades 
the whole range of reality and exhibits it as 
its own development. All the diversity of 
things is dependent on this unitary life, and 
everything tends to return to it. Many 
metaphors are employed in the attempt to 
show how the One can give rise to the rich 
diversity of the world without losing itself 
anywhere or striving to transcend itself. It 
resembles a light which sends forth its rays 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 45 

far and wide without diminishing its own 
brightness ; it is like the fountain from which 
all things proceed but which itself continues 
to flow inexhaustibly ; or it resembles the root 
of a tree which shoots up above the ground, 
but which is not merged into its own un- 
folding. In these modes of connection the 
core of spiritual life and also of philosophy 
consists entirely in the search for unity and 
the apprehension of it. All the different 
domains of life and philosophy are only 
particular ways of reaching unity. But since 
the final unity lies beyond all special forms 
and all concepts, it follows that thought, even 
when its powers are strained to the utmost, 
is no longer equal to the claim which is made 
upon it. It is only immediate apprehension 
which can put us in possession of this unity. 
Thought passes into a formless feeling, a sub- 
jective mood which cannot be expressed in 
words, in which it desires nothing but unity. 
By this process thought brings about its own 
destruction as pure thought, but this violent 



46 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

convulsion results in feeling becoming inde- 
pendent, and there arises a new type of 
psychical experience which is both self-con- 
tained and self-sufficing. 

In the detailed carrying out of this tendency 
life is either shaped on the model of a hierarchy 
or it receives a mystical turn. The former 
scheme leaves the diversity of things, but 
introduces a fixed order into it by recognizing 
throughout a continuous chain of life. For 
Spiritual Life proceeds from the original unity 
as the first stage, and on this there depend 
the further stages of Soul and of Nature. 
Each in its place receives life from the order 
of being immediately above it, and conveys it 
from itself to that which is below it. Through 
a connection of this kind, even that which 
might seem to be imperfect as far as itself is 
concerned gains a certain value. It is only 
through a misapprehension of this connection 
that anyone can imagine that he has discovered 
evil in the world, since what seems to be evil 
is in reality only a lesser good. This concep- 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 47 

tion of gradation and the downward com- 
munication of life was destined to attain to 
great influence in the domain of Christianity. 

Mysticism, on the contrary, puts the 
individual into immediate relationship with 
the infinite life, and aspires to steep him in 
this life to such an extent that it becomes 
his own. By getting rid of everything that 
makes for separation and distinction, by casting 
off the chains of what men call happiness, and 
by freeing himself from all the narrowness 
and insufficiency of the mere unit, the mystic 
believes that in extinction itself he gains an 
incomparably higher life and genuine blessed- 
ness. It is here that we first recognize clearly 
the power which the thought of a total 
surrender of the ego and of absorption into 
an infinite life can exercise over the human 
soul. The fact that man can completely 
renounce the merely human and can give up 
the whole wealth of reality without thereby 
falling into the void, seems to assure him of 
his capacity for rising superior to the world. 



48 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

and to bring him into close connection with 
the ultimate depths of the universe. Hence 
he seems to himself to be nowhere greater 
than in such complete surrender of his separate- 
ness. But the danger of this movement, as 
well as its greatness, consists just in this con- 
centration of life on one point. It is, of course, 
this concentration which has given rise to the 
thought of a purely internal world, and the 
recognition of the immediate presence of 
infinite life in the individual soul has revealed 
a refuge which is open at all times. But at 
the same time the stripping off of all particu- 
larity forces life to give up all detailed content 
and all penetration and organization of reality. 
But even when this loss is recognized, this 
mode of thought remains an indispensable 
element in all development of independent 
spirituality. It not only persists throughout 
the middle ages, but comes into prominence 
in modern times in new shapes, and shows 
that it is still powerful even at the present 
day. If we give up the immediate presence 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 49 

of infinite being in the soul, the life of the 
soul must inevitably and immediately lose in 
depth and spontaneity. 

The relation of Christianity to the problem 
of unity and multiplicity is by no means simple. 
Different, and in fact opposite, tendencies are 
engaged in conflict against one another, and 
though this may give rise to much confusion 
and error, it also produces much movement 
and progress in life. The mere fact that 
Christianity is distinctively and characteristic- 
ally an ethical religion, has diverse tendencies. 
Morality has its end in action, and therefore 
demands both self-activity and self-sufficiency 
on the part of the individual ; but religion gains 
power only where man is conscious of his 
weakness and seeks help from higher powers. 
The ethical element prevails chiefly in the 
conception of God, which is essentially differ- 
ent from that of the Greek world. For Greek 
thought the divine is closely bound up and 

intimately united with the totality of the 

4 



50 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

world ; and though, later on, it was regarded 
as raised above all sensible existence, it never 
detaches itself from the world as an inde- 
pendent power, and does not take up an inde- 
pendent stand over against it. Hence its 
activity seems to be not so much a free action 
as a process of nature, which is only raised to 
the spiritual level. It is represented as a 
flowing out, a shining forth, a going forth, etc. : 
in every case as something which happens 
from necessity. 

Christianity, on the contrary, in close con- 
nection with later Judaism, regards God as 
a Spirituality who transcends the world and 
is self- existing and self-sufficing. He is 
thought of as free in His action, and His 
self-manifestation is regarded as spirit coming 
into touch with spirit. There is no doubt that, 
especially in popular thought, this may give 
rise to the danger of degrading God to the 
level of human ideas and interests, the danger 
of anthropomorphism. But however far this 
may have spread, it is not the whole of the 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 51 

matter. All the mistakes that have been made 
ought not to prevent us from recognizing that 
it was in Christianity that the movement 
towards a self-existent and active Spirituality 
was first carried out on any large scale, 
and that it was religion, in the ethical form 
which it assumes in Christianity, that first led 
to the recognition of such a Being. To the 
change in the conception of the divine Being 
there corresponds a new relation of man to 
Him. The Greek sought to draw near to the 
Deity on the heights of philosophy, by pushing 
knowledge to its utmost limits. He sought 
complete union with the Divine ; but when this 
is attained, life does not return to its starting- 
point to make something newer and higher 
out of it. But this is what takes place in 
Christianity, because the relation to the Deity 
opens up new depths of life in the individual, 
and makes him, even in his particularity, an 
object of the divine love and care. The indi- 
vidual, who is accustomed to be treated with 
such indifference by nature and society, gains 



52 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

an infinite worth from such a relationship, and 
ventures to regard himself as an end in him- 
self, but at the same time he finds that he has 
a task which takes precedence of any general 
extension of his activity. This holds good for 
all men without distinction : it is not measured 
and limited by any outward results that have 
been achieved, but depends on the general 
nature and bent of the soul, on the active 
moral force which it shows. This forms a 
great contrast to Greek thought, which could 
not make union with the transcendental 
unity a matter of philosophical knowledge 
without encountering great differences between 
one man and another, and finding that only a 
few were called to the full knowledge of God. 
The problem of recruiting all men for the 
spiritual task is one which, in the province of 
civilization to which we belong, first gained 
recognition by the agency of Christianity, and, 
though the task contains enormous complexities, 
in particular, the danger lest spiritual work 
should be subordinated to the power of the 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 53 

merely human, once having been recognized 
and acknowledged it can never again be put 
into the background. The fact, too, that in 
Christian thought, which is determined by- 
ethical considerations, the Greek ideal of justice 
gives way to the ideal of love, tends also to 
the exaltation of the individual in general and 
of each separate individual in particular. If, 
on the one hand, outward achievements decided 
the place of the individual in the whole, that 
which was mean and feeble could never receive 
any sort of recognition. But on the other 
hand it does gain a certain value if every man 
finds that the task he has to face is inde- 
pendent of external conditions, and if infinite 
love embraces all, the least as well as the 
greatest, in an equal degree. 

This all leads to a considerable increase 
in the significance of the individual and his 
decisions. At the same time the coherence of 
things and the connection of the individual 
with it is not surrendered, but rather there 
is a general tendency to increase this also. 



54 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

Christianity does not exhaust the relationship 
to the Deity in single points of connection 
and isolated achievements, but desires that this 
relationship should lead to an entire change of 
soul; and it is for this very reason that the 
individual cannot force himself to take the 
decisive step, but must await the coming of a 
new life from a source of power and grace 
which is above him. A kingdom of God 
must reveal itself to him, and must even 
inspire the desire to enter it. Great world 
events must happen in order that a change 
may take place at one point, or, as Hegel 
expresses it in his own language, "the very 
fact that the opposition is implicitly done 
away with constitutes the condition, the 
presupposition, the possibility of the sub- 
ject's ability to do away with it actually." 1 
Withal, it is an important fact that the 
coherent system with which the individual 

1 Hegel, Werke, 2 e Aufl. xii. 277. Hegel, Lectures on the 
Philosophy of Religion, translated by E. B. Spiers and 
J. B. Sanderson, iii. 67. 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 55 

comes into connection does not remain 
purely of an invisible kind but strives to 
embody itself in a visible form, not only in 
its later stages but from the very beginning ; 
and that there is an early and persistent 
tendency to form a church. This brought in 
its train an inevitable dependency not merely 
on divine truth but also on human conditions. 
The more firmly the visible order was estab- 
lished, and the closer it linked the invisible 
order to itself, the greater was the loss which 
the freedom of the individual was bound to 
undergo; every diminution of freedom, how- 
ever, endangered the ethical character of 
Christianity. 

Thus Christianity contained difficult contra- 
dictions, just like every other spiritual move- 
ment which has had a great part to play on 
the stage of humanity. These contradictions 
needed imperatively to be reconciled in some 
way or other, but the manner of reconciliation 
was principally determined by the nature of 
the period within which it had to be accom- 



56 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

plished. It was the time at which the 
definitive consolidation of Christianity was 
established, the last epoch of antiquity, a 
period when the will to live was greatly 
weakened, when men were becoming uncertain 
of themselves, and all the old connections were 
broken up. The old epoch was at an end, 
and a new one had not yet dawned. Hence 
men's first desire was to reach a safe harbour 
of refuge: they wished to be thoroughly 
assured of deliverance, and to be relieved as 
far as possible from all private responsibility. 
The wish was all the stronger owing to the 
fact that men's minds had been so overawed 
by gloomy experiences that the thought of 
eternal life became for them, above all else, a 
dread of eternal punishment. This drove them 
to submit willingly to a superior authority, 
and also led to truth being put in as popular 
a form as possible. In this difficult situation 
Christianity did indeed become a refuge for 
mankind ; but it could not become so without 
suffering the consequences of this position and 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 57 

being driven in a very problematical direction. 
The religious aspect now pushed the ethical 
into the background, and immediately devel- 
oped a strong tendency towards the visible 
and sensuous. Hence it came about that the 
Church as a visible order absorbed Christianity 
more and more into itself, that it was thought 
to have at its disposal the treasure of divine 
grace, and was raised to a position of incon- 
testable authority over the individual. At 
the same time the idea of organization — and 
of an organization which is both stable and 
palpable — becomes the centre of spiritual life 
and spiritual work. However much com- 
plexity and difficulty this tendency has brought 
with it, we must not fail to recognize its 
grandeur. Nowhere else in the whole course 
of history has the attempt been made to bring 
the whole of mankind into close connection 
with one another on the ground of common 
convictions, and thus to bind them together 
not by external constraint but by inner com- 
munion. Nothing in the human shape is left 



58 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

outside the spiritual order, or excluded from its 
influence. But at the same time the spiritual 
order is drawn down deep into that which is 
human, and thereby strongly influenced ; its 
special shape is essentially determined by the 
needs of man, or by the stimulus which seems 
necessary in order to set him in motion. The 
final result is that a unique compromise is 
concluded between the spiritual and the merely 
human, which leaves to the former its essential 
superiority, though in detail the spiritual is 
largely overborne by the human. No one 
contributed more to establish this compromise 
than Augustine, a man who united a fervent 
desire for a world-enveloping spiritual life with 
the deepest feeling for the needs and weak- 
nesses of men. 

The idea of organization was first carried 
into effect in a complete form in the middle 
ages. It determined not only the relationship 
of the individual to society, but also the rela- 
tions between the different departments of life. 
The community in its religious aspect appears 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 59 

as the Church, and by it the individual is 
provided with a firm support, direction for 
conduct, gentler or sterner constraint to definite 
tasks. Thus a certain level of life is attained, 
a certain amount of spiritual activity is widely 
distributed, and to some extent the masses are 
brought under discipline. But at the same 
time the limits of achievement are unmistak- 
able. Such a system of subordination and 
solidarity inevitably involves a serious loss of 
independence, and if independence is lost the 
inward life is bound to suffer injury. We 
cannot place the chief end of man in the per- 
formance of certain exercises and tasks, in the 
fulfilment of his religious, i.e. his ecclesiastical 
" duties," without reducing the experiences of 
his soul to a position of secondary importance, 
and letting outward acts repress inward dis- 
position. The centre of gravity of life is 
removed more and more from the soul of the 
individual, and the latter is treated as a mere 
appendage of the gigantic ecclesiastical system. 
It is a natural development of this position 



60 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

that the Church becomes not only the exclusive 
custodian of truth, but also the keeper of the 
moral conscience of humanity. Her ministers 
decide what each man has to hold for truth, 
and what is the good he has to strive after. 
She believes that she has the power of con- 
ferring eternal salvation on them, or of con- 
demning them to eternal misery. The more 
this conviction prevails and becomes a part of 
life, though the spontaneity of life in its par- 
ticular manifestations is dried up, the more 
must the greatness of man consist in willing 
submission, and the more must his piety acquire 
the character of a blind devotion. But all the 
smaller is the place left for independent convic- 
tion and disposition, for erect and self- active 
personalities. Thus the latest papal Syllabus 
actually required men not only to receive the 
decisions of the Church obediently, but to hold 
these decisions as their own beliefs. If the 
independence of the personality is violated in 
this way, acts as well as belief will acquire a 
predominantly passive character. Hence it is 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 61 

[again consistent with these medieval modes 
of thought when the latest Encyclical re- 
proaches the Modernists for thinking too 
highly of the active virtues. The result is 
that the individual is degraded, and obedience 
and endurance become the highest virtues 
in his life. 

The medieval tendency towards organiza- 
tion affected also the life of culture, and it 
was Scholasticism in particular which gave 
philosophical expression to this tendency. 
The rigour of the older thought, which in- 
volves the exclusive concentration of life on 
religion and allows all diversity to be absorbed 
in unity, is here moderated. The other de- 
partments of life are accorded some rights ; 
they are taken up into a general scheme in a 
way that resembles the Greek synthesis of 
life, especially as carried out by Aristotle. 
The artistic and the religious struggle for 
unity are to be fused into a comprehensive 
totality of life within which their differences 
are reconciled. The idea of gradation seems 



62 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

to render this possible by handing over the 
direction of the whole to religion, but guaran- 
teeing a certain independence to the other 
departments which fall within the sphere of 
the universal reason and the secular life. 
This inclusion of all interests certainly sets 
men a great and imperative problem, but the 
solution here offered is much too external to 
be felt as satisfactory beyond the middle 
ages. This scheme of subordination leaves 
the other departments of life no real inde- 
pendence and no spontaneity of creative effort. 
But this is not the only unsatisfactory feature, 
for it is also found that the spiritual life is 
wanting in inner unity, since religion, on the 
one hand, with its elevation above the world, 
and an essentially earthly culture on the other, 
with its joyous reconstitution of the world, 
pull in precisely opposite directions, so that 
only an extremely external conception of the 
problem and extreme superficiality in the 
mode of attacking it could bring them into 
immediate union. 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 63 

This attempt to solve the problem of unity 
is, as a whole, magnificent and in its way 
unique. But the influence which it exercised 
on mankind was considerably modified through 
Mysticism, and it involves a presupposition 
which is open to dispute. It demands men 
who are either senile or else spiritually im- 
mature : it cannot satisfy men who are grown 
up and conscious of their powers. But ever 
since the close of the middle ages humanity 
has been striving to attain its majority, and 
it is just this endeavour which ushers in a new 
epoch and gives it a distinctive character. A 
growing feeling of power requires a life that 
is independent and spontaneous, and it cannot 
have it unless individuals are called upon to 
exercise their powers in the freest way. This 
caused authority to be felt as an oppressive 
burden, and the medieval synthesis was proved 
to be too narrow for the wealth of life that 
was struggling upwards. Hence a breach 
with the old order became inevitable, and life 
took a course which was directly opposed to 



64 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

that which it had previously followed. The 
leading tendency had hitherto been from 
multiplicity towards unity, from an un- 
organized to an organized life, but now the 
movement is directed towards multiplicity, 
towards the apprehension and elaboration of 
all that is specific and individual. Freedom 
from every tie, complete emancipation, now 
becomes the main aim, and a demand to which 
everything must give way. At the beginning 
there was no intention of shaking off all the 
traditional connections and making the in- 
dividual rely entirely on his own powers : the 
intention was rather that, at such and such a 
particular point, the whole should be more 
immediately apprehended, made to live more 
intensely, and wrought out into a distinctive 
form. But gradually these connections sank 
in importance, and the individual freed him- 
self more and more from all ties. Hence any 
co-ordination of life could only come from the 
individual himself, and must never be incon- 
sistent with his freedom. The complications 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 65 

which arise from this position we shall have 
to deal with immediately. 

The old philosophy, which was deeply 
rooted, and occupied a hallowed place in the 
beliefs of mankind, might regard this striving 
for freedom as a mere movement of opposi- 
tion, as a bold revolt and a piece of defiant 
presumption. Such reproaches have not yet 
been finally silenced. But that this striving 
after freedom was in reality something more, 
that it was the result of a spiritual necessity, 
is proved by the enormous enrichment and 
development of life to which it has given rise, 
and the enormous range of actuality which 
it has opened up. If the unfolding of the 
powers of the individual were nothing more 
than a movement of negation and contradic- 
tion, this victory of individuality could never 
have been the source of the amount of life 
and creative effort to which, as a matter of 
fact, it has given rise. That the change 
extends beyond all merely human ideas into 
the fundamental texture of life itself, is proved, 



66 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

among other things, by the transformation of 
the inner life as compared with the middle 
ages. The middle ages were by no means 
wanting in inner life, but it was an inner life 
of a rather weak and passive kind ; man felt 
himself untrammelled by the world in the 
silent ebb and flow of immediate personal 
experience. The modern period, on the 
contrary, develops an inner life of an active 
kind which insists on making its power felt, 
subjecting the world and making it conform 
to its own demands. Whatever may be the 
problems involved, it cannot hide the truth 
which this movement brought into pro- 
minence, viz., that complete spontaneity is 
essential to genuine spiritual life, and that 
this spontaneity requires both freedom and 
self- activity. But we cannot have these latter 
without the recognition of the special character 
of each particular part, the recognition of 
individuality. Where such movements arise 
and make themselves felt, life is bound to be 
essentially changed. 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 67 

In justification of the new movement this 
also may be alleged, viz., that the great civilized 
nations have imported into it each its own 
specific character and have accentuated this 
character by its further progress. Nothing 
distinguishes one from another more than the 
special direction in which they seek and de- 
mand deliverance for humanity. In art and 
in the general tone of life, the Italians, the 
first modern men, occupy the earliest place. 
The French continue the same tendency and 
carry it further into the ramifications of 
existence, and their leading spirits set an 
example to the individual of defiant inde- 
pendence of the world and also of society. 
The English build up political and economic 
life from the individual as the starting-point, 
and cherish the hope that it will thus be 
raised to an infinitely higher level. The 
Germans represent the movement towards 
freedom in the domain of religion, and they 
carry it down into the furthest depths of the 
soul. When their classical literature reaches 



68 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

its highest point they finally develop the idea 
of a world-enveloping Personality, which is 
grounded in itself and controlled by its own 
laws. This is an idea which must form the 
rallying point for every attempt to overcome 
the opposition between unity and multiplicity, 
between order and freedom. 

The new movement shows that it is superior 
to all individual caprice, and is spiritually pro- 
ductive by its characteristic shaping of all the 
departments and relations of life, and the 
essential changes which it makes in the re- 
presentation of the world and the existence 
of man. The older science consisted chiefly 
in a general survey of the multiplicity of things, 
in which they were regarded as forming parts 
of a great structure. Modern science, how- 
ever, breaks up the initial impression which we 
experience of a totality, and seeks to get down 
to the ultimate elements and the smallest 
forces, to ascertain their laws, and by their 
help to reconstruct the world. This tracing 
of particular lines of connection gives us not 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 69 

only a clearer insight into reality, but also 
an incomparably greater control over things. 
Without the analytical methods practised by 
modern science, the modern technical applica- 
tions of it would never have arisen. But just 
as modern science introduces more detail and 
exactitude into its representation of reality, 
and places the motive power of things in the 
elements, so, too, its own position is strikingly 
differentiated from that of medieval science. 
The Scholastic system, which made metaphysics 
supreme over the whole range of reality, is 
shattered. The individual sciences take up 
their task independently, and furnish us with 
characteristic views of the world, while at the 
same time they get closer and closer to things 
and keep near their real nature. Not only the 
individual sciences, however, but also whole 
departments of life diverge further and further 
from one another, and at the same time 
break away from the control of religion and 
the Church. Law and Morality, Art and 
Science, become independent spheres of life 



70 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

which encompass man on all sides with par- 
ticular truths and set him particular problems. 
This makes life incomparably broader, richer, 
and more varied, but is likely at the same 
time to expose it to varying and, indeed, 
intersecting movements. It takes from life, 
without hope of return, its old restful and 
self-contained character. 

It has been so often depicted before that we 
do not feel it incumbent on us to show how 
human society takes on an entirely different 
form when work falls predominantly on the 
shoulders of the individual, how political and 
economic life is driven into new channels, and 
how the individualizing of existence penetrates 
even into social intercourse and everyday 
customs. That which now gives charm and 
attractiveness to work is, in general, the fact 
that its product embodies and illustrates indi- 
vidual character, which is only thereby fully 
realized. 

The position of man within reality is also 
affected by the movement of modern life, and 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 71 

a fresh foundation must be sought for his 
greatness. Aristotle declared that the differ- 
ence between man and the animals was that 
the latter cannot go beyond individual impres- 
sions and individual stimulations, while man, 
in virtue of his power of thought, can form 
universals and let his action be determined by 
them. Later thought differentiates the lower 
from the higher stage by the distinction that 
the former is bound hand and foot to the 
order of nature, while life at the latter stage 
rises to independent thought and self-decision. 
Reason, which raises us above the purely 
natural order, does not take its direction from 
any external source, but is able to choose its 
own path. Thus freedom becomes the dis- 
tinguishing mark of man ; he is " the first 
freedman of Creation" (Herder). Of course, 
the conception of freedom is by no means 
uniform, and often covers both a higher and 
a lower kind, e.g. the freedom of Locke is 
different from the freedom of Kant. But 
everywhere that freedom forms the leading 



?2 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

conception of value it is taken as proof of. a 
Reason indwelling in man. Freedom, too, 
need not reduce the demands on conduct, but 
may increase them if an invisible world is 
present in the soul as an awakening and con- 
straining force. Thus the Reformation has 
greatly increased the task of morality by 
laying the chief problem of religion immedi- 
ately on the soul of the individual and demand- 
ing its transformation. And Kant, by deepen- 
ing the idea of duty, has brought the whole of 
life under an inner subjection, and has thus 
made it not more easy but more difficult. 
In connection with men like these, who 
approached the subject with all the deep 
earnestness of souls anxiously concerned for 
the truth of life and spiritual self-preservation, 
who dare speak of libertinism ? 

This movement as a whole gave to phil- 
osophy a new form and new aims, and, as far 
as philosophy is in line with the new move- 
ment, it exhibits a common character through- 
out all the differences between individual 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 73 

philosophers. Descartes is the first in whose 
philosophy this common character is clearly 
discerned. A strong craving after truth 
makes him feel the existing condition of 
knowledge to be absolutely unsatisfactory, and, 
in particular, to be involved in unbearable 
confusion. The first result is a radical doubt, 
but within this doubt there persists unchanged 
the endeavour to attain some fixed point, such 
as the fulcrum which Archimedes desired. 
Such a point is finally found in the thinking 
subject, in the conscious ego, and this leads to 
a complete change of direction in the work of 
philosophy. Hitherto it had proceeded from 
the world to man, from the whole to the 
element, from the macrocosm to the micro- 
cosm : after a truth had been apprehended in 
the macrocosm it was applied to the micro- 
cosm. But now the microcosm steps into the 
first place, the movement advances from man 
to the world, which becomes a difficult problem 
instead of a ready-made datum. The truth 
about the world is ascertained only after it 



74 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

has first been taken to pieces by scientific 
analysis and then reconstructed in accordance 
with the laws of our thinking. Only that can 
be admitted to be true which presents itself to 
our thought as clear and distinct. It is owing 
to this tendency to start with the subject that 
the English thinkers make psychology the 
foundation of all knowledge. To follow up 
the growth of the individual life, and to ascer- 
tain the laws and tendencies which govern it, 
becomes the central task of knowledge and 
determines all its contents and range. All 
the spiritual achievements, all the morality 
and law, the religion and art, which form an 
integral part of human existence, are to be 
developed from the soul of the individual, and 
owe to this source their characteristic forms. 
What was formerly looked upon as a cosmic 
process, for example, the causal connection 
between events, now becomes something ex- 
perienced by man, and, indeed, produced by 
him, and thus acquires quite a different signi- 
ficance. About the same time Leibniz draws 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 75 

up a magnificent scheme of the world in which 
each individual existence is regarded as a 
monad, as a metaphysical point. As such, it 
gains an endless life, and develops this life 
purely out of its own resources without having 
any relations, or being bound up, with anything 
external to itself. While the monad thus 
assumes the form of a world, reality itself is 
transformed into a world of worlds. But at 
the same time Leibniz' hearty recognition of 
individuality enables him to assign to each of 
these sub-worlds a unique significance. 

Kant, too, continues this movement of 
modern life, and the whole of his philosophy 
is pervaded by the attempt to transfer the 
centre of gravity from the object to the 
subject. The theoretical reason frees man 
from the oppression of an alien world, for it 
shows that the subject itself constitutes its 
own world in accordance with laws that are 
indwelling in itself. " The understanding 
does not derive its laws from nature, but pre- 
scribes them to nature." Hence the theory of 



76 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

knowledge takes precedence of metaphysics, 
and destroys the latter in the old sense in 
which metaphysics believed that it could 
apprehend a transcendental existence. The 
practical reason frees the acting personality 
from all external constraint and leaves it 
to impose its laws on itself, but, at the 
same time, in the building up of a new 
moral order enables it to penetrate to the 
ultimate depths of reality. Personality here 
becomes the channel through which a higher 
world is revealed, and nowhere else is it more 
clearly seen that freedom, while it destroys old 
ties, introduces new ones in their place, and 
claims to be essentially the setting free of a 
more real and spontaneous life. Hence the 
new philosophy exhibits a large number of 
results which often contradict one another if 
taken as they stand. But we need only in- 
stitute a general comparison with the older 
method to become aware that the diversity 
rests on a common foundation, and that it is 
not a confused divergence, but a struggle to 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 77 

carry out a common fundamental tendency. 
We thus discern here with absolute clearness 
the close connection between the form which 
philosophy assumes and the general movement 
of human life. 

Anyone who is ready to deny that there is 
any truth in such a movement as this, w T ith its 
thorough-going transformation of reality, must 
have a very low opinion of the forces which 
have been, and are, at work in the world. 
The man who undertook to prove that this 
movement was nothing more than a product 
of human self-will would find that the logical 
development of his principles made it very 
difficult for him to escape absolute scepticism. 
But to acknowledge some truth in a movement 
which forms part of the world's history does 
not mean that we regard it as raised above all 
dangers and aberrations. In particular, we 
may expect that here, as usual, the relation of 
man to the spiritual life may give rise to the 
most perplexing difficulties. That which, on 
the high level of the spiritual life, has an in- 



78 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

contestable right, and is capable of producing 
the most fruitful results, may be dragged 
down by man in his natural state to the level 
of his general mental outlook and interests, 
and thus be most mischievously distorted. 
Such a man may claim for himself, just as 
he is, what belongs to him only as a member 
of a spiritual order ; he may believe that 
he can accomplish from his own resources 
what is possible for him only in connection 
with a visible or invisible system, and this 
is bound to give rise to a great deal of 
error and obstruction. For the tragedy 
of the human situation is just this, its 
greatest danger is the perversion of its 
best {corruptio optimi pessima). Hence in 
modern life also doubt may finally become 
so strong that it reaches right down to the 
foundations, and drives life and thought into 
new directions. 

The modern scheme of life arose in opposition 
to the medieval, and is in direct contradiction 
to the latter both as regards its estimate of 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 79 

man and the general feeling for life which 
pervades it. The medieval system, as we saw, 
presupposes the spiritual minority of man, the 
modern system his majority. In the former 
man appears as possessed of no great spiritual 
enterprise, and as partaking to a certain extent 
in spiritual life only through superior power ; 
but the modern system presupposes men of 
spiritual power, bent on high aims, for otherwise 
individuals could never become pillars of the 
spiritual life. But now the question arises, 
whether this picture is verified by experience, 
whether real life does not lag far behind, and 
whether all the complications which we have 
just indicated are not thereby reintroduced. 
Such complications may be allowed to rest so 
long as the old coherent systematizations of 
life, the world of religion, or the world of 
a universal reason, in the sense of the En- 
lightenment, are still vividly present to men, 
and point them in a common direction. But 
the more these fade into insignificance, and the 
more man is thrown upon himself, the greater 



80 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

is the danger that spiritual life may dwindle 
and finally disappear entirely. 

The problem is most easily grasped when 
we consider the question as to how any 
systematic coherence can be introduced into 
life on the new basis. The more we surrender 
all control of the manifold by a superior Whole, 
the more are we thrown back upon the capacity 
of the individual elements to accomplish the 
same result by means of free association. 
Experience shows that this is not such an easy 
matter, that on the one hand we may have 
mere colourless co-existence, or on the other 
a condition of mutual hostility. And the 
surrender of an inner connection may easily 
lead to a diminution of spiritual achievement. 
This is seen in all the ramifications of the 
spiritual life, and first of all in the case of 
science itself. We saw how the break-up of 
the medieval structure raised the individual 
branches of science to a position of independ- 
ence, made them specific starting-points for 
investigation, and revealed the treasures of 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 81 

the universe with incomparably greater fulness 
and exactitude. At first a reaction towards 
unity persisted as a relic of earlier religious 
and philosophical systematizations. After its 
disappearance the individual sciences had only 
their own necessities to consider, and went 
their own ways, which soon diverged. The 
next step is a specialization which has eyes for 
nothing except what lies in the direction of its 
own goal, and which, though it accumulates a 
wealth of information, never really succeeds in 
penetrating and mastering its material. Or 
again, where more general tendencies come 
into prominence, they easily succumb to the 
influence of special departments of science, 
and this brings them into a position of sharp 
opposition to one another. Hence the various 
branches of science which deal with nature and 
spirit develop fundamentally different methods 
and standards of value, and, even within any 
one of the great departments, the various 
movements and tendencies are often widely 
divergent. Still more dangerous is the 



82 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

cleavage which takes place in life itself, the 

attitude of hostility which whole departments 

of life assume towards one another. We have 

already become so accustomed to look upon 

religion and culture as opponents that we 

hardly feel any longer how abnormal this 

strained relationship is, and how foreign to 

other epochs. Further, there exists at the 

present day among men of average culture an 

opposition between their beliefs about the 

world and their beliefs about the moral values 

of life, which is often concealed, but in reality 

is very sharp. In the world they recognize an 

exclusively mechanical causality ; in human 

life they defend moral values and the idea of 

freedom. The same individuals and parties 

who, in their view of the world, greet every 

negation with shouts of joy and put as low an 

estimate upon man as possible, in the political 

and social domain glorify the greatness and 

dignity of man, as if this did not depend upon 

inner connections and require that reality 

should have deeper foundations than those 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 83 

offered by the mere co- existences of experience. 
Thus we live to-day not only alongside one 
another in separate worlds, whose wide diver- 
gence is concealed only by language, but one 
and the same man lives in different worlds. 
In view of such a state of spiritual anarchy, 
how could common ideals arise and by their 
superior power win the minds of men ? 

The problems which arise from the relation- 
ship between the individual and society are no 
less difficult. When the modern movement 
towards freedom laid the burden of life mainly 
on the shoulders of individuals, it presupposed 
that they were thoroughly efficient and willing 
to do their best. It also relied upon the free 
association of individuals, and the mutual 
contact and intermingling between different 
circles in the life of society, to produce a 
sufficient degree of solidarity among humanity. 
Much has certainly been attained which earlier 
Epochs did not possess, but the modern libera- 
tion of energies has given rise to strong opposi- 
tions and passions, and has conferred enormous 



84 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

power on the party system. It has often 
tended to promote the unbridled letting loose 
of frenzied selfishness, and has placed at the 
service of the latter all the means which a 
highly developed civilization has at its disposal. 
But this leads us to the decisive point as to 
how the individual presents himself to us on 
the new basis when we consider him in his 
own private nature. In the higher strata of 
modern culture, wherever conceptions such as 
personality and individuality have been fully 
recognized, it has only been by those who have 
held fast to and reinforced invisible connections, 
and have resolutely maintained the reality of 
an inner world. For we are only justified in 
setting a high value upon personality if we 
believe that it reveals to us a new kind of 
process — in fact, a new world. The develop- 
ment of individuality can only be made the 
chief object of human endeavour if existence 
as human beings means that men have great 
tasks to carry out, and contradictions to over- 
come, as the condition of realizing the highest 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 85 

capacities of their own nature. Life only- 
acquired greatness and spiritual independence 
because man had to seek to enter into relations 
with the whole universe, to come to terms 
with it, and to maintain his own position in 
face of it. The main body of mankind has 
become less and less conscious of these inner 
connections, and, at the same time, man has 
become a mere item in a world which comes 
before him as something given and incapable 
of development from the spiritual point of 
view, and which surrounds and hems him in 
on all sides. Hardly any room is left for the 
conception of personality, and we do not see 
how individuality can maintain its value if it 
is nothing more than a particular fragment of 
nature. But if the conceptions maintain 
themselves, claim to be valued as highly as 
before, and make good their claim, it is impos- 
sible to guard against a luxurious upgrowth of 
hollow talk and a deep-reaching insincerity in 
life. In the absence of any counteracting in- 
fluence, there is an increasing danger that our 



86 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

life may lose its sure foundation and finally 
find itself adrift in the void, leaving us to 
affirm conclusions while denying their premises. 
In fact, when this tendency prevails, the 
human soul can no longer remain a unity in 
itself, but is bound to be transformed into a 
medley of co-existing and interpenetrating 
psychical processes. If these are not worked 
over and transformed by a superior unity, they 
will come to have a merely sensational connec- 
tion with one another, and man will finally 
become a mere bundle of sensations, feelings, 
and impulses. But, all the same, the superior 
rights of personality and the dignity and great- 
ness of humanity are proclaimed and trumpeted 
forth. 

Thus experience shows that the mere 
striving after freedom cannot ensure that life 
shall retain a spiritual character. The break- 
up of all inner connections has led to super- 
ficiality and the dissipation of energy. In 
addition, the course of the movement in 
modern life has revealed that the complications 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 87 

are much greater, and the resistance much 
more strenuous than was anticipated at the 
beginning, when men were filled with joyful 
confidence. And a further fact has become 
evident, viz., that it is not only at particular 
points that civilization does not correspond to 
the demands of the spiritual life, but that 
civilization as a whole is in many ways in 
conflict with these demands. We feel with 
increasing distress the wide interval between 
the varied and important work to be done at 
the circumference of life and the complete 
emptiness at the centre. AVhen we take an 
inside view of life, we find that a life of mere 
bustling routine preponderates, that men 
struggle and boast and strive to outdo one 
another, that unlimited ambition and vanity 
are characteristic of individuals, that they are 
always running to and fro and pressing forward, 
or feverishly exerting all their powers. But 
throughout it all we come upon nothing 
that gives any real value to life, and nothing 
spiritually elevating. Hence we do not find 



88 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

any meaning or value in life, but in the end a 
single huge show in which culture is reduced 
to a burlesque. Anyone who thinks it all over 
and reflects upon the difference between the 
enormous labour that has been expended and 
the accompanying gain to the essentials of life, 
must either be driven to complete negation 
and despair, or must seek new ways of 
guaranteeing a value to life and liberating 
man from the sway of the pettily human. 
But this will force men to resume the quest 
for inner connections. 

But the objection will be raised that the 
endeavour to attain to such connections is 
no novelty, for the whole of the nineteenth 
century was taken up with it. This is certainly 
the case ; but should we find ourselves at the 
present day in such a state of unrest and in- 
security, as actually exists, if the co-ordina- 
tions which have been attempted had been 
satisfactory? In German speculation philo- 
sophy itself, with buoyant courage, undertook 
to understand the whole of reality as the 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 89 

unfolding of a single all-embracing spiritual 
process. Hegel, in particular, makes all 
philosophy to be the search for unity, and 
at the same time gives a symmetrical form 
to the whole of existence. But however 
powerful have been the influences which this 
attempt has exercised, and still exercises, it 
has not met with universal recognition, not 
only because in the meantime there took place 
the well-known movement of life towards the 
visible world, but also because man was 
treated in the Hegelian system too much as a 
purely intellectual being, and the spiritual life 
was not given any sufficient content. On a 
broader basis a counteracting influence to pre- 
vent the threatened dissipation of the energies 
of life was exercised by the thought of social 
evolution, the carrying out of which was 
especially distinctive of the nineteenth century. 
It makes full use of the connection of the 
individual with the sequence and co-existence 
of things, and shows what is the value of this 
connection, how the work of men through 



90 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

long generations still continues to influence 
present conditions, and, further, how the 
existence of men in society produces a 
spiritual atmosphere, a milieu, which leaves 
every individual enveloped and moulded by 
superior power. But if, from this point of 
view, he appears as a mere member of an 
extensive system, the question arises as to 
whether he can come into intimate relation- 
ship with this system, and take it up as a 
whole into his character and disposition, or 
whether he feels himself at the mercy of mere 
blind fact. In the first case, the problem 
arises how history and society are to attain 
to an inner connection which can win the 
allegiance of the soul of the individual, if no 
sort of inner world is presupposed. In the 
second case, where the mere fact of depend- 
ence is the final conclusion that is reached, 
we cannot see why man should welcome as a 
good this dependence, which is often very 
burdensome and oppressive ; why he should 
make it part of his character, and sacrifice his 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 91 

own well-being to that of a world which con- 
sists of merely co-existing parts. Hence the 
matter remains in some obscurity, and only 
the constant interpenetration of the two con- 
ceptions, as, for example, in the case of Comte, 
the founder of Positivism, can in any degree 
conceal the fact that, by this path, the goal 
is unattainable. In reality, what has kept 
modern men together to the greatest extent 
is work, work in the modern sense. This 
has as its characteristic feature, in comparison 
with earlier periods, a greater detachment from 
the subjective basis and a greater independence 
of the individual, the formation of great com- 
plexes which develop their own laws and 
motive forces, and which combine and unite 
with one another the achievements of indi- 
viduals. The efforts of the individual can 
only succeed on condition that he gains an 
entrance into these systems, and does his work 
in the particular position which is assigned to 
him. This exercises an extraordinary power 
in overcoming the self-will of individuals and 



92 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

directing their actions towards a common 
end. But, whatever has been accomplished 
in this respect by such a co-ordination, it 
unites men only with regard to their outward 
actions, and does not produce a spiritual unity. 
Wherever it is a question of character and 
convictions, all combination and co-operation 
in work cannot prevent a wide divergence, a 
rampant selfishness, an inward isolation of the 
individual. In fact, if work is raised to a 
position of exclusive control, it finally brings 
with it the danger that life may become 
merely mechanical. The craving after more 
soul and more love in human existence has 
to remain unsatisfied. Hence, as a general 
rule, the modern movement after some sort 
of connection is too external, and does not 
go back to the spiritual foundations ; we are 
conscious of a great gap with nothing to 
fill it. 

Such a situation naturally enables us to 
understand how the older method, and, in 
particular, the medieval ecclesiastical system, 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 93 

can again make itself more powerfully felt, 
how it can make use of the perplexities of 
modern life to recommend its own system of 
truth, and how it can win the allegiance of 
many vacillating souls. As a matter of fact, 
it acquires a certain power because, in the 
midst of a progressive disintegration, it pre- 
sents a stable and coherent system, and offers 
a support to which one can cling. If that dis- 
integration is not in the end checked from 
within, then a serious danger of a relapse 
might arise ; the imperative need of some 
support or other might for a time thrust out 
of sight all other considerations. But what 
men are able to win temporarily does not 
necessarily become a power that is spiritually 
productive ; and even if the old system is 
taken up again, it could never regain its old 
power of conviction. For this rested for the 
most part on the fact that the spiritual life 
which was offered by this system was on a 
level with the general world-movement. But, 
meanwhile, changes of the most far-reaching 



94 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

character have taken place. Of course, men 
may make artificial attempts to reverse the 
course of progress, or to explain it away, but 
these attempts can never have the immediacy 
and inner necessity which were characteristic 
of the medieval systematization in its own age, 
and which belong to a great achievement in 
the history of the world. Hence no help can 
be expected from this quarter. 

If men were mere products of history, as 
this view makes them, if, as such, they were 
bound to the pre-existing situation, and both 
their life and their work were essentially con- 
trolled by what has previously been accom- 
plished, it is impossible to see how to avoid 
the perplexities which we have set forth, or 
how we should overcome the opposition 
between a unity which crushes out all freedom 
and a multiplicity which breaks up all co- 
herence. But we are not mere products of 
history ; in virtue of our spiritual nature we 
are able to transcend our past, and this power 
we are able to make use of and cultivate. 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 95 

Fortified by this, we are not left defenceless, 
and need not accept whatever history offers us 
as an undifferentiated whole ; we possess a 
spontaneity which we can oppose to every- 
thing that is merely given ; we can separate 
in what is offered to us that which is spiritually 
necessary from that which has been shaped by 
human agency ; we can emphasize the require- 
ments for the maintenance of spiritual life 
which have been revealed by the experience of 
history, and we can inquire what direction is 
pointed out for our own work by these 
requirements. 

In our brief survey of history it was clearly 
seen that, in the case of the problem of unity 
and multiplicity, the movement of life has not 
followed a single line, but that the tendency 
towards multiplicity, which is characteristic of 
modern times, is in opposition to the tendency 
towards unity, which was predominant in 
antiquity. A critical estimate of the whole 
shows us that it is not a question of a mere 
sequence of tendencies, but that two poles are 



96 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

indicated, between which the spiritual life is 
necessarily compelled to move. If spiritual 
life is to be possible, we must have on the one 
hand an inner connection, a creative activity 
proceeding from the whole: such life can 
never be produced by a mere juxtaposition ; 
it must be acquired and maintained by some 
power above the separate elements. On the 
other hand, as we saw, the spiritual life must 
have spontaneity, independence, and pure 
inwardness, if it is to exist at all ; it must be 
lived for its own sake and cannot be imparted 
or transferred from without. It does not 
persist in the condition which it has once 
reached, but begins to ebb if it is not con- 
tinually renewed. If, then, it is incontestable 
that such immediacy and spontaneity can 
arise only in the soul of the individual, and 
from this source must animate all the con- 
nections which are subsequently formed, then 
a contradiction arises which at first sight is 
insoluble. Life arises for us only at an in- 
dividual point, and yet, as spiritual life, it 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 97 

must at the same time be a creative activity 
proceeding from the whole. If this contra- 
diction is to be resolved, we must make an 
essential change in the view which we took 
at first sight, and deepen our conception of 
reality so as to see at the individual point 
more than an isolated event. We must 
recognize the presence there of a universal 
process, and a totality of spiritual life must be 
the basis of our own existence. To be sure, 
this world-process is not immediately our own 
possession : we have first to grasp it and work 
it out ; but it never could have come into our 
field of vision at all and become an object of 
our efforts if our nature did not originally 
participate in it. If our inner existence is not 
somehow grounded in the infinity of the 
whole, all co-ordination of life must be im- 
pressed upon us from without, and this will 
inevitably crush all independence. But this 
again will necessarily cause, sooner or later, 
a reaction in favour of setting free the indi- 
vidual elements, and will engender a desire 

7 



98 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

to break up the connection. On this view, 
mankind would be driven to and fro, without 
hope of rescue, between blind subjection to 
authority and a spiritual anarchy of individual 
elements, and would be worn out by the 
contest, were it not that there is a point of 
vantage from which it is possible to make 
some headway against the antithesis in ques- 
tion, though it does not here simply disappear, 
and at which we are able to protect ourselves 
from the unhappy condition just described. 

The average man, whose spirituality is 
sluggish, will always have great difficulty in 
getting beyond the stage of wavering between 
these two opposite positions. According as 
the feeling of weakness and isolation, or the 
feeling of power and independence, gains the 
upper hand, he will incline first in the one 
direction and then in the other. But this 
makes it all the more an indispensable task 
for the work of the spirit to develop a life 
which rises above that opposition and all 
the spiritual poverty of the average man, and 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 99 

thereby to bring into as sharp relief as possible 
a genuine spiritual culture as compared with 
the superficiality and pretence of a culture 
which is merely human. This cannot well 
take place unless we seek also to establish a 
particular organization, a co-ordination of 
mankind with this object in view. The 
medieval Church became too narrow for this 
purpose, not only because it bound up the 
spiritual world much too firmly with a visible 
order, but also because it made religion the 
sole representative of that independent spiritual 
life. It thus gave life a character that was 
too one-sidedly religious, and transformed to 
too great an extent the spiritual into the 
ecclesiastical. But when once the funda- 
mental thought of a combination of forces, 
under the idea of a spiritual life superior to 
the average, has won a footing in history, it 
cannot again disappear ; it will stir up and 
move humanity until it is revived in some 
form or other. Only then can we attack the 
problem of bringing into relief from the dull 



100 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

average of attainment a heart and core of 
genuine spirituality throughout the whole 
range of existence, and of working from this 
starting-point to strengthen and elevate life. 
The constant presupposition is, that a spiritual 
life which is a unified whole is at work in the 
depths of our soul ; it is only when it does 
this that main lines of effort can be developed 
out of it, that truths of the soul can be ela- 
borated, and that the way can be prepared tor 
an inner solidarity of the soul. 

If this is impossible without the constant 
co-operation of philosophy, then philosophy 
itself must receive a new form from the new 
connections, and must develop new methods. 
Its first task is to provide a new starting-point 
for its own work. It can no longer take its 
stand on the external world, as the ancients 
did, since the general movement of life and 
thought has tended more and more to make 
that world itself a problem, and to refer men 
back to life as the only thing which is immedi- 
ately present to them. But if this life is 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 101 

understood as the mere activity of a unit 
which is cut off from the world, it can never 
get beyond its limited and separated sphere, 
and never attain to a truth that is universally 
valid. It will thus inevitably lapse into a state 
of complete isolation. Hence it is important 
to show that there is a world which lies within 
life itself, and to advance from the psychologi- 
cal treatment of it to the noological. The latter 
does not deal with the states and experiences 
of the individual unit, but with the upgrowth of 
the spiritual life, and looks at it in a way that 
rises above the separation of individual and 
society, but at the same time affords us a 
characteristic view of the whole of reality. 

If we thus start from the spiritual life as 
a unified whole, and strive to reach some 
systematization of life in work, we need not 
be afraid that humanity will sink to a condition 
of rigid uniformity : ample provision has here 
been made for movement and variety. For, 
in the first place, spiritual life as a whole will 
always need to be recognized and appropriated 



102 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

by men, and in doing so different minds will 
inevitably take different paths. It will only 
be with great difficulty that this divergence 
will ever cease in the course of history, or even 
diminish. But we have to struggle incessantly, 
not only to realize the spiritual life as a whole, 
but also to give form to its details. For, as 
we shall have to show later with more detail, 
the spiritual life does not reveal its depths to 
man all at once, but he can only advance 
gradually into it by coming to terms with the 
existing condition of the world and his own 
soul. Various stages may have to be tra- 
versed and important decisions will have to 
be taken. In this matter one and the same 
answer cannot be expected from all. For the 
individual may take up his position here or 
there according to his nature and experience ; 
in fact whole periods may adopt different 
positions according to the impressions they 
have received and the tasks they have to 
perform. In particular, one epoch may be 
filled with the consciousness of the inner 



UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 103 

greatness of the spiritual life, another may feel 
deeply how human existence fails to reach 
this height of attainment ; the one may there- 
fore be a period of affirmation, the other a 
period of negation. Great tension may be the 
consequence, and much strife among men, but 
if we once make sure only of the idea of an 
independent spiritual life, we shall have made 
it possible to bring counteracting influences to 
bear against the disintegration, and in fact to 
understand the different movements as all 
co-operating in a common work. The only 
essential is that the matter should never be 
regarded as settled and done with. Let it 
never be forgotten that to us men there is not 
offered any ready-made relationship between 
unity and multiplicity, but that we have to 
co-operate with the forces at work in the 
world, and laboriously strive to reach some 
sort of reconciliation of the antithesis. 



CHAPTER II 

Change and Persistence 

Time and Eternity 

The relation between change and persistence, 
between time and eternity, is exceedingly- 
complicated and confused in human life. No 
phase of this relationship is satisfying ; we are 
driven from one to another ; a reconciliation 
seems to be indispensable, but we do not see 
how to attain it. 

In the first place, man stands completely 
immersed in the stream of time ; his whole 
existence is in a state of constant change, 
and in the external world he finds everywhere 
the more change the more closely he scrutinizes 
things. Meanwhile, the current of his own life 
flows on without resting ; in comparison with 

104 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 105 

the endlessness of time, the existence of the 
individual appears as a fleeting moment. But 
this transience and insignificance of his life 
is felt by man both as a grief and a grievance, 
and hence it comes to be one of the leading 
motives of his work to escape somehow from 
the destroying power of time. He experiences 
that longing for eternity which Plato depicted 
in glowing colours. The individual feels that 
he must soon retire from the scene, and hence 
he seeks to leave behind him some signs that 
he has lived. Great kings set up memorials 
of their deeds and inscribe their names on 
walls of rock. But if we go beyond the 
individual, we find that the building up of a 
civilization requires, as it were, the accumula- 
tion and storing up of achievements. The 
present must maintain its hold on the past 
in order to be able to continue the building-up 
process ; our task is to establish a foundation 
for life in face of all change of circumstances 
and all caprice of individuals. Institutions 
and customs, which are declared to be un- 



106 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

changeable and which are revered as inviolable, 
are particularly dominant at the beginnings of 
civilization. Religion especially, by connecting 
life with a sacred order, exercises an influence 
in favour of persistence and keeps change at 
arm's length as an outrage against God. 

But if we take our stand within time we 
cannot well overcome the power of time. 
The stream of time undermines and destroys 
the mightiest and most skilfully constructed 
works ; from the largest whole to the smallest 
parts it brings everything into flux. Not only 
individuals, but whole nations and civilizations 
decay ; the various religions themselves, the 
guardians of eternal truth, succumb to time 
and survive only as memories. The craving 
for eternity would have to be torn from our 
soul if our life belonged entirely to the 
immediate present, if it could not transcend 
it and press forward to a new reality, which 
stands in a different relation to the question 
of time and eternity. But such a reality can 
reveal itself, if at all, only as the result of 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 107 

spiritual work, and this work necessarily in- 
volves both thought and philosophy. Now 
it would appear that nothing is more char- 
acteristic of thought than the power to look 
at things out of relation to time under the 
form of eternity. 

Greek philosophy devoted special attention 
to this problem. It waged vigorous war 
against the flux of phenomena, and hence 
produced a characteristic type of life. Change 
in things is recognized throughout a wide 
range, but is degraded by the main tendency 
of thought to a lower level, and kept at a 
distance from the heart and core of spiritual 
work. This was not done purely in the 
interests of philosophical knowledge, which 
bade men seek beneath all change a persistent 
fundamental substance or unchangeable ele- 
ments. Life, too, demanded some sure and 
certain support, which should be a spiritual 
rallying-point from which it could go forth 
to enrich itself. It was thought that life 
could not gain this support except by turning 



108 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

from the restless activity of man to the 
universe, which, in its ultimate nature, was 
considered to be unchangeable. In grasping 
and contemplating the order of the universe 
and its eternal grace, man seemed to find 
something worth living for and to be raised 
above the cares and troubles of everyday life. 
On this view, knowledge seems to be the only 
path by which man's life can be raised to the 
level of that which is eternal ; the superiority 
of knowledge over action was thus fully 
guaranteed. But the next thing was to 
ascertain more accurately what it was in the 
universe which could be reckoned as persistent. 
The answer given by Plato gained the widest 
acceptance and has exercised the deepest 
influence on mankind. Plato sees in the 
conceptions which thought uses a certain 
amount of fixity in contrast with an opinion 
which continually varies. On a closer view, 
this fixed element is determined as the form 
or shape. The co-ordination of these forms 
into a great synthetic structure gives rise to 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 109 

a realm of unchangeable truth and reality. 
This realm must be raised above the world 
which envelops us, in order to preserve its 
independence and purity, but it exercises a 
formative influence over the world and gives 
its efforts a fixed goal and an impulse towards 
higher things. Knowledge is here raised to 
a position of control over the whole of life, 
for it is knowledge alone which is able to 
reveal to us this transcendental world and 
keep it abidingly present. 

Aristotle brings form back into the world 
of experience, but leaves it its immutability, 
and by his vigorous development of the anti- 
thesis of matter the total picture of the world 
and life is rounded off with still greater com- 
pleteness. This reconciliation between change 
and persistence, between time and eternity, 
which was reached when Greek thought was 
at its highest level, has moulded the whole of 
life in a specific way, and still retains the 
influence which it has exercised for thousands 
of years. Form has received the fullest recog- 



110 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

nition as a phenomenon which pervades the 
whole world, and it becomes the central point 
of spiritual work. The world appears on this 
view as dominated by the opposition of matter 
and form. The latter is the absolutely un- 
changeable element, so that to seek something 
which is persistent simply means to throw the 
forms into clear relief. Matter, on the other 
hand, exists in a state of flux, not subject to 
rule. In the process of life form takes hold 
of matter and shapes it to its own ends, but 
matter always tends to escape from these ties 
and always has to be conquered anew. Hence 
the world is in a state of constant movement, 
but in its ultimate nature it remains unaltered : 
rest retains an unassailable superiority over 
change. And even where change extends 
beyond the individual, as with the fates of 
nations or the motions of the heavenly bodies, 
Aristotle does not by any means believe that 
there is no persistence. The conception of fixed 
rhythms in movement is developed, perhaps, 
in connection with the Babylonian astronomy. 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 111 

Just as day and night, summer and winter, 
follow one another in eternal recurrence, so 
also there are rhythmical periods in the world 
as a whole and in the fates of men. Move- 
ment does not go on endlessly, but only up 
to a certain point, whose position is fixed, then 
it turns back to the beginning and starts a 
new series. Hence everything is both old 
and new at the same time ; in the incessant 
ebb and flow of phenomena, in the endless 
succession of periods, the world as a whole 
remains the same. The work of knowledge 
corresponds to this conception of reality. Its 
task is not so much to follow the changes in 
the coherent systems which have been formed 
within life as to construct a general picture 
out of the confused mass of first impressions, 
to bring the flux of things to a stand. Its 
procedure is not genetic, but descriptive and 
classificatory. The strong point of this philo- 
sophy lies in discovering fixed types or forming 
them, to a certain extent after the manner of 
plastic art. It is certainly in connection with 



112 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

this that we are especially indebted to the 
work of the Greeks for the fixation of sharply 
outlined types of thought and life, which seem 
likely to remain a permanent heritage of 
humanity. 

The search for something which is persistent 
is not confined to the universe generally, but 
extends to the details of human existence. 
The kind of political life which prevails seems 
to be determined above all by the nature of 
the political constitution. The form of the 
state seems to be that which preserves the 
systematic coherence of the whole in opposition 
to the constantly changing series of individuals, 
and it is this in particular which has led to the 
high estimation, and frequent over-estimation, 
in which constitutional forms are held. Thus 
a tendency arises to construct an ideal and to 
hold this up as the permanent standard by 
which any change in political relations is to 
be judged. 

But the impulse to find something that is 
persistent is seen with particular clearness in 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 113 

the way in which the life of the soul is shaped. 
The ultimate basis of life is here always taken 
for granted ; in the full development of this 
human activity has an important task assigned 
it, but at the same time an impassable goal. 
When this goal is reached, activity ceases to 
be a mere striving, and is transformed into a 
state of rest in itself, into an activity fully 
satisfied by its own exertion and self-expression. 
The best example of this is artistic contempla- 
tion, which is full of exalted pleasure without 
striving to attain to anything beyond itself. 
It seems that here the opposition is entirely 
overcome, since the activity itself acquires a 
sort of persistence. If, in accordance with 
this, happiness is sought not in effort but in 
possession, this possession is no state of 
slothful rest, but an incessant activity. Hence 
the chief problem of life is life itself, as the 
complete unfolding and effective co-ordination 
of its own nature : as the poet says, the 
important thing is to become what one is. 

The conception of form has a far-reaching 

8 



114 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

power in this connection also, for everywhere 
that there is any diversity manifest in the 
domain of life, it is to be brought into a fixed 
relation either of gradation or of equilibrium. 
The general result is a life which is self- 
existent and established on its own founda- 
tions, and which is exempt from restlessness 
and haste only because it is incessantly active. 
No one would wish to maintain at the 
present day that this scheme, which was 
drawn up by the philosophers, really controlled 
the life of the average Greek. Very possibly 
it was by way of contrast to this average that 
its features were outlined with so much 
sharpness. But in the spiritual life and in 
the work of that unique nation philosophy 
does not occupy a position of isolation. And 
the creative activity which found expression 
in art shows more persistence than in modern 
times ; certain types endure for centuries 
without crushing the individuality of their 
creators. The technical w r ork of the Greeks, 
too, has more stability ; there is less alteration 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 115 

in its methods and instruments than has 
become the rule in the latest period. Hence 
their life has throughout a more restful 
character than modern life ; it is laden with 
fewer unsolved problems and sharp contra- 
dictions. It is not so much a restless striving 
after an ever-receding goal, a hoping and 
waiting for a better future, as a co-ordination 
and strengthening of its own powers ; it 
draws its satisfaction from the complete 
mastery of its own existence in the present. 
This ideal of life, with its reconciliation of 
rest and activity, has always possessed an 
attraction for later periods, but all its nobility 
and greatness cannot conceal the presupposi- 
tions on which it rests, and which became 
untenable in the following ages. It demands 
a vigorous nature ; it demands a considerable 
activity which takes pleasure in its own 
exercise ; it demands, in fact, faith in the 
rationality of the human soul and the whole 
of reality in their fundamental nature. Form, 
too, can only maintain its position of leader- 



116 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

ship where it possesses an inner life — we might 
say, a soul. And the whole scheme under- 
went considerable modifications towards the 
close of antiquity. After the loss of political 
freedom and the cessation of spiritual creation, 
activity loses its old value, and what is offered 
in its stead cannot fully make up for the loss. 
Difficult problems and contradictions arise 
within human existence and in the condition 
of the world ; in particular, the old harmony 
between the spiritual and the sensible threatens 
to turn into a sharp opposition. Among men 
the pettiness and meaninglessness of everyday 
routine is ever more keenly felt. The thought 
that a similar round of tasks may go on for 
ever, may easily make it appear that all our 
trouble and work is fruitless, and may become 
terribly oppressive. Finally, when creative 
power is at a low ebb, form no longer preserves 
the soul and the content which are necessary 
to the furtherance of life. 

Hence old ideals decayed, and yet no new 
ones arose out of the chaos of the times. Was 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 117 

it to be wondered at that, in such a situation, 
wherever all faith in life had not disappeared, 
there arose a strong desire for some truth or 
other which should be untouched by the 
changes of time, and for complete peace in the 
possession of such a truth? The important 
point is to find something eternal, which leaves 
behind it the whole domain of becoming, and 
reveals to men a new life. Such an eternal 
element, however, is not to be found in the 
world, but only above it, and hence the 
endeavour to attain to it acquires a religious 
character. The endeavour to reach persistence, 
as we saw it in art, in which the fixed element 
is sought within the activity, gives way to a 
religious endeavour which is inclined to bring 
the two into opposition. Rest in the eternal, 
free from all the haste and toil of life, now 
becomes the supreme goal. When spiritual 
life is at its highest level, as in the case of 
Plotinus, this rest is certainly not represented 
as a cessation of all action, but action here lies 
entirely within the soul ; it comes to be a 



118 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

constant and persistent contemplation of the 
one eternal existence. On this view there is 
no room for any change or any diversity. 
Finally there remains as the ultimate fact of 
life, only a single and fundamental emotional 
tone, a quiet resting and free moving in eternal 
existence. But this leads to the threshold of a 
new epoch. 

Christianity could not summon mankind to 
a complete change of heart, and could not 
preach the necessity of a new condition of 
things, without making a breach with the 
finality of the old Greek view. It was just 
the rise of Christianity which made clear the 
fundamental presupposition on which the old 
system rested, and which was now seen to be 
untenable. The Greek solution of the problem 
stands and falls with the conviction that this 
world of ours is everything which it can 
possibly be, that it is in a normal condition 
which does not need any alteration and does 
not demand our interference. Only on such 
a view could the contemplation of the universe 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 119 

furnish the chief content of life, and a content 
which is not only completely satisfactory but 
also productive of happiness. Christianity, on 
the contrary, holds the opposite belief, that 
the world is full of grave disorders, that it has 
fallen away from a standard which it ought to 
maintain, and which it really did maintain at 
the beginning, and that it is important to 
regain the lost height of attainment by an 
entirely new departure, for w r hich a fresh 
bestowal of divine love and power on humanity 
is necessary. At the same time, the world as 
a whole acquires an essentially new aspect : 
great deeds now become the essence of all that 
happens, they make an ethical drama out of 
the whole. In this the salvation of mankind 
and, indeed, of the whole universe, is the 
question at issue and is the subject of the 
greatest vicissitudes. The seriousness of this 
drama forbids all repetition : the thought of a 
rhythm of events, and of an ebb and flow in the 
history of the world, can in such a connection 
be regarded only as a frivolity. At the same 



120 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

time the most significant modification occurs 
in the relation between time and eternity. 
Greek speculation at its highest level admitted, 
of course, that all that happens in time rests on 
an eternal order, but the temporal and the 
eternal remain clearly separated from one 
another ; eternity does not intervene in the 
changes of time. But this is just what 
happens according to the beliefs of Christi- 
anity ; it is this conviction more than any- 
thing else that gives this religion its distinctive 
character. But the entry of the eternal into 
time must very considerably increase the 
importance of all that happens in time ; 
temporal happenings thus gain a value for the 
deepest ground and the ultimate fate of reality. 
The building-up of a kingdom of God within 
human life is closely connected with this fact. 
When the old and the new worlds come into 
collision, nothing produces a wider separation 
between the leading thinkers on both sides, 
such as Plotinus and Augustine, than the fact 
that the former reduces time to a mere simili- 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 121 

tude of eternity and does not call for any sort 
of historical progress in human life, while with 
Augustine the building-up of a religious com- 
munity, an ecclesiastical order, is the central 
point which controls all his thought. It is 
when the formation and development of this 
religious order lays a great task upon men and 
calls for decision on their part that they first 
acquire a history in any true sense of the 
word. But the task which is laid upon them 
is a permanent one. For although, after the 
victory of Christianity, the movement pro- 
ceeds on more peaceful lines, there is always 
the demand for the further expansion and 
development of the Christian life. In this 
connection Christianity has from the beginning 
set up a high goal in its representation of the 
kingdom of God, when men shall be perfect in 
love and purity. This goal is far in advance 
of anything which experience shows to have 
ever been attained, and it has consequently 
implanted a deep longing in the human soul, 
and has continually lifted the thoughts of men 



122 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

beyond the present and the present order to a 
future anticipated in faith and hope. 

But the soul of the individual takes its full 
share in the inner movement of life and in the 
shaping which it receives in the course of 
history ; in fact, it is in the individual soul that 
the most immediate and deepest changes take 
place. For, henceforth, the main task of life 
can no longer be to make completely intelli- 
gible and hold fast a nature which after all is 
already present to us. For the intensifying 
of the ethical demand, which insists that men 
must be renewed and purified, makes every- 
thing which is achieved by merely natural 
powers seem inadequate, and requires a radical 
renewal. It is thus that a history of the soul 
first arises and becomes the heart and core of 
all life. The great oppositions of existence 
here come into immediate collision, and keep 
the life of man, which oscillates from one to 
the other, in a state of constant tension. 

Hence there is much more movement and 
change in Christianity than in the world of 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 123 

ancient thought. But, on the other hand, 
there are many influences which co-operate to 
preserve and strengthen the effort after per- 
sistence. When God is conceived of as 
entirely above the world and as a personal 
Being, and especially after victory has been 
won in the outer world, the rest in God which 
is longed for when life is at its highest level 
has a more fervent and intimate character, 
and the desire to be completely free from the 
restless and ignoble routine of the world be- 
comes still more pressing. The appearance of 
the eternal in time could then be easily under- 
stood as allowing men, even in this life, to give 
an eternal setting to their thoughts and feel- 
ings, and to free them from every element of 
time. This line of thought has established 
itself and maintains a permanent position in 
particular in the Greek Church, and, more than 
anywhere else, in Greek monasticism. 

But, as a general rule, what contributed 
most to the attainment of persistence was the 
conviction that the truth which decides the 



124 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

salvation of the soul was not obtained by merely 
human power, and could not be so obtained 
in the future, but that it came to us as a com- 
munication from God, as a supernatural revela- 
tion, and, as such, tolerates no change. The 
course of history makes the Church the guar- 
dian of this unchangeable truth. The more the 
Church detaches itself from its secular environ- 
ment, and the greater the separation between 
divine and human, supernatural and natural, 
the higher is the inviolable divine truth raised 
above the changes of human life and above the 
whole sphere of human work. 

A further support was given to the tendency 
towards persistence by the conditions of the 
closing period of antiquity, with its disinclina- 
tion for any independent action and any private 
responsibility, along with the dangers attaching 
to both. When it made any effort, it experi- 
enced not so much a pleasurable exercise of 
power as a paralysing uncertainty as to the 
success of its endeavours. Hence it was bound 
to seek for happiness not so much in endeavour 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 125 

as in possession, and it wanted its possession 
to be absolutely certain and unassailable. A 
possession of this kind, however, seemed to 
be nowhere offered except by religion in its 
ecclesiastical form. 

Just as this tendency towards persistence 
made itself more widely felt in the middle 
ages in the sphere of religion, so now it 
conquered all the ramifications of life. In 
spite of their increasing power, the new 
nations were not yet in a position to pro- 
duce a culture of their own, and were 
compelled to depend on that which was 
handed down to them. It was not to be 
wondered at that this culture was thought 
to be final perfection and met with uncon- 
ditional veneration. Hence Aristotle came 
to be regarded as the supreme example 
of human knowledge, with whom men 
would not dare to break, and the attain- 
able was everywhere supposed to have been 
already attained in the past. There was 
only one task left for men to carry out, 



126 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

to guard faithfully that which had been won, 
and to transmit it conscientiously to later 
generations. 

This mode of thought usually looked at the 
life of its own age and the state of its environ- 
ment in the light of the past, and this past 
might be either classical antiquity or the 
beginnings of Christianity. The past, with its 
culminations of attainment, was that which 
lay next to man's soul, and it hung like a veil 
between the man and his own period. There 
was something fresh to do only in so far as the 
various authorities on which men relied had to 
be reconciled with one another. This was the 
problem which Scholasticism took up and 
solved in a very capable manner within the 
limits of possibility. Thus life here, with all 
its externally directed industry — and this is by 
no means lacking — yet possesses in its inmost 
heart a deep tranquillity and security. It is 
usually exempt from agitating soul-conflicts 
and corroding doubts. In the exceptions 
where these do occur they are usually thought 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 127 

of as something monstrous and are condemned 
with the utmost severity. 

This restful tone attains its maximum in 
mysticism. The latter develops a wonderful 
tenderness and intimacy, in direct contrast 
with the hardness and roughness of its environ- 
ment. It strives to free human life more and 
more from every element of time, to make 
man younger every day, and to transport him 
entirely into a "permanent present." The 
man for whom time becomes as eternity and 
eternity as time, seems to escape all pain and 
to be brought into a state of pure bliss. In 
order to prepare a secure lodging for such 
peace within the soul, the inner consciousness 
is here first separated from all external activity, 
as a pure internality of the soul, and w r hile 
this immersion of life in itself does not prevent 
a joyous activity toward the world, this latter 
has no value except as an expression of char- 
acter. The close connection between God 
and the world which mysticism stands for, 
may reduce both the visible world and time to 



128 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

an illusion and a dream, a morning-glow which 
disappears at the rising of the sun. But this 
may easily lead to the thought that the world 
and time, as expressions of eternal being, gain 
a closer connection and a greater significance. 
These are valuable seed-thoughts which may 
lead to a more inward comprehension of the 
world and also to a doctrine of development. 
We cannot fail to recognize that this is a 
doctrine which has arisen from religious 
speculation. 

This predominance of the idea of persistence 
sets definite limits to the action as well as the 
thought of the middle ages. Where the con- 
dition of things, with all its incompleteness 
and all its misery, was thought to be the dis- 
pensation of a higher will, it could not be the 
task of man to strive to make essential altera- 
tions in it, or to transform reality as far as 
possible into a kingdom of reason. And the 
misery was the more easily endured because 
all earthly life was thought to be only a tran- 
sitory passage to a better state of existence,^ 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 129 

to man's true "home." Hence any effort to 
improve things was limited to mitigating to 
the best of men's ability the need which 
existed in individual cases : no attempt was 
made to trace back the misery to its source 
and to abolish it totally by a general trans- 
formation of existing circumstances. We find 
no effort and no movement from whole to 
whole. But just as the condition of mankind 
was accepted as essentially unchangeable, so 
the great external world was thought of as 
being once for all established and fixed by 
superior creative power. In particular, we 
never meet with the thought that organic 
forms may be subject to change ; nature is 
conceived of as the faithful tenant of the form 
which the Creator has stamped upon things. 

Hence the thought of persistence had a 
secure predominance and determined the kind 
of life that was lived. To emphasize the per- 
sistent element in things, and to connect 
human action with it, seemed to be in the 

main the chief aim of spiritual work. The 

9 



130 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

artistic and the religious solutions agreed 
together on this point and reinforced each 
other. 

The older kind of life certainly had great 
advantages. To life it gave an inner equili- 
brium and to man the consciousness of being 
encompassed by assured truth. It thus guar- 
anteed a restfulness incomparably greater than 
was given to later periods. But it rested on 
a presupposition with the overthrow of which 
the whole became untenable, the presupposi- 
tion that in those achievements of the past, 
on which it relied, the highest conceivable 
limit had been reached and absolute truth 
attained. If essentially new tasks arose and 
essentially new powers were developed, if far- 
reaching changes took place in the funda- 
mentals of life and in the general view of 
reality, there was bound to be opposition to 
the finality of earlier views. This opposition 
could not be smoothed over by a friendly 
agreement, but led to a complete breach with 
the old way of life. For as soon as the con- 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 131 

viction gained ground that tradition did not 
exhaust the fulness of life, that it left many- 
problems untouched, the solution of which 
was possible and, in fact, absolutely necessary, 
as soon as, in a word, the incompleteness and 
the inadequacy of the old way was put beyond 
doubt, its claim to be final and complete was 
bound to seem an intolerable presumption, 
which must be contested with the greatest 
vigour in the interests of truth. It seemed 
wrong that the achievements of a particular 
age should be stereotyped and made the 
standard for all ages. Such an attempt might 
lead to the reproach that the temporal usurps 
the rights of the eternal, and the human the 
rights of the divine, in a way which can no 
longer be tolerated. But the decision of the 
resulting conflict depends on the question 
whether the modern period has, or has not, 
really given rise to a new life of an inde- 
pendent spiritual character. If it has done 
so, if it has unfolded new forces in the region 
that lies beyond all human opinion, and made 



132 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

something essentially new out of life and 
reality, if there is a culture which is speci- 
fically modern, and if there is a specifically 
spiritual type of the modern man, then the 
foundation is overthrown on which the 
medieval doctrine of persistence rested, and 
the maintenance of life on medieval lines 
becomes impossible. 

But when the new life first arose, it was 
not by any means the intention of those who 
introduced it to bring in something new and 
different. They believed rather that what 
they introduced would only free the old life 
from the disfigurement to which it had been 
subjected, and would restore it to its original 
condition. Thus the Renaissance and the 
Reformation were not consciously, as they 
were actually, the originators of a new life, 
but the restorers of an old one. They did 
not want something new, they wanted the 
old and nothing but the old. It was in the 
seventeenth century, with the advance of the 
Enlightenment, that the new became fully con- 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 133 

scious of its own nature : old and new became 
clearly separated, and it was inevitable that a 
middle period {medium cevum) should be 
interpolated between the two, and hence the 
name " middle ages." Thus was invented the 
usual division of history, subject to all the 
defects which are inseparable from divisions 
of this kind, but nevertheless an unavoid- 
able necessity. But at the same time it was 
recognized that human existence is in motion. 
The modern period could not enforce its 
own right to exist without breaking with the 
traditional doctrine of persistence. 

It is not for us to consider now how the idea 
of movement has made its way more and more 
into the different departments of life, and how 
everything which stood in opposition to it, and 
finally even organic forms, have been brought 
under its category. At present we are con- 
cerned only with the general nature of life and 
work. And here the most significant feature 
is the change in the fundamental presupposi- 
tion, as compared with earlier schemes of life, 



134 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

a change which becomes continually more 
evident. To the Greeks the world presented 
itself, in spite of all the movement that goes 
on, as a ready-made and rounded-off whole, 
and on their view there was no necessity 
for any essential alteration. Christianity, on 
the other hand, which estimated things 
from the moral point of view, found the 
world full of error and guilt, and indeed 
burdened with a pervading contradiction, a 
contradiction so grave that its solution could 
not be expected from any movement on 
the part of the world itself, but only from 
some supra-mundane power. The main stream 
of modern thought does not acknowledge any 
such dualism : it is inclined to connect the 
divine with the world and to merge the one 
completely in the other in a monistic system 
of thought. But if in this it approached the 
ancient view, there is the essential difference 
that now the world is- not thought of as a 
finished product but as in a state of becoming, 
<and that it calls upon man to act on his own 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 135 

account to a far greater extent than did the 
earlier schemes of life. Philosophical thought 
thus understands the world as the whole of 
being, which strives to attain its highest level 
by its own movement. The double conviction 
that the world, as we have it, is extremely im- 
perfect, and that it is making sure and certain 
progress towards perfection, changes the whole 
tone of life and the nature of work in im- 
portant particulars, as compared with earlier 
periods. If it was formerly the task of science 
to distinguish and emphasize permanent forms 
in the transitory series of sensible phenomena, 
and to show that the perfect form is the 
directing power and final goal of movement, 
we now find that the significance of time for 
the production of reality meets with full recog- 
nition. The important point is to make the 
existing state of things completely intelligible 
by following its evolution from the very be- 
ginning, and thus win for man more power over 
things. For the man who begins by under- 
standing the evolution of things is able to 



136 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

intervene in their formation, and can direct 
them to human ends. When knowledge 
therefore ceases to be a contemplation of 
reality, and becomes a re-creation, it comes 
into closer connection with life and increases 
its activity. Science is the leader in the 
movement towards subjecting the world to 
the human spirit. 

The new life does not accept any part of 
the existing condition of things as absolutely 
unchangeable. Even in the case of the most 
difficult problems it holds out the hope of a 
better future. One task is no sooner finished 
than another comes into sight ; everywhere we 
see the capacity for increase, unlimited possi- 
bilities are disclosed. In the first place, man 
in his own nature appears capable of progress, 
and not bound down to a fixed endowment of 
nature. For nothing appears more character- 
istic of a reasonable being than an indwelling 
of infinite life and effort. Hence no definite 
limit is set to its powers, but they seem to be 
able to grow and to keep on growing. And 



CHANGE AND PERSISTENCE 137 

further, both political and economic life seem 
to be capable of progress to an unlimited 
extent. This progress seems to take two 
directions : firstly, the getting rid of all irration- 
ality from human affairs, as far as possible, 
and the progressive transformation of our 
existence into a kingdom of reason, and, 
secondly, the effort to ensure as far as possible 
to all individual members of the community a 
share in material as well as in spiritual goods. 
And since spiritual work in all its ramifications 
is in a state of movement, the idea of progress 
determines to a continually increasing extent 
the general character of life. Since movement 
continually breaks down more and more all 
the goals which lie ahead of it, and fashions 
them afresh according to its changing needs, 
movement itself, gathering force as it goes, 
comes more and more to be the chief content 
of life. Finally it will have nothing beyond 
itself; the increase of power becomes the 
supreme ideal, which is bound to come into 
violent collision with the old ideal of giving 



138 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

form to things. As Hegel says, "becoming is 
the truth of being." 

Movement cannot win control over life in 
this way, or even claim to control it, without 
overcoming the irregularity which had hitherto 
clung to it and subjected it to severe reproach. 
It must show that it possesses in itself stability 
and coherence, and is moving in a fixed direc- 
tion. Movement fulfils these conditions when 
it becomes evolution. For the conception of 
evolution makes all the different phases into 
steps in one progressive movement, in which 
one part is connected with another, and all 
contribute to one general result. But this 
conception of evolution can extend over the 
whole of reality and shape it in a single mould. 
It is precisely the thinkers generally regarded 
as the leading representatives of modern 
thought who have given a particularly im- 
pressive exposition of the idea of evolution 
conceived cosmically. It is thus with Leibniz 
and his innumerable monads, all of them 
moving with slowly but surely increasing 






TIME AND ETERNITY 139 

rapidity, the summation of whose progress 
amounts to an unceasing advance of reason. 
It is so with Hegel, according to whom the 
movement of the universe progresses by means 
of a constant succession of contradictions, 
which arise and are overcome. Every indi- 
vidual thing, according to its particular nature, 
must plunge into the stream of becoming, but 
it is permanently preserved in that stream as an 
element in the universal. But the whole con- 
ception of movement in the modern sense has 
been most powerfully expressed by the poet : 

81 In the currents of Life, in Action's storm, 

I wander and I wave, 

Everywhere I be ! 

Birth and the grave, 

An infinite sea, 

A web ever growing, 

A life ever glowing, 
Thus at Time's whizzing loom I spin, 
And weave the living vesture that God is mantled in." l 

Such changes give rise to a new relation 
between time and eternity, and at the same 

1 Faust, Sc. I. Sir T. Martin's translation. 



140 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

time alter the value assigned to the present. 
But a closer view soon shows that the modern 
period does not speak with one voice on the 
subject, that the idea of evolution is itself 
evolved, and has passed through three chief 
phases. The first phase owes its origin to 
religion, and especially to religious speculation, 
as it begins with Augustine and is continued 
by philosophical mysticism. Just as the world 
in its diversity is conceived of as a representa- 
tion, an unfolding of the divine unity, so the 
course of time is an unfolding of eternal being. 
Time cannot thus become an expression of 
eternity without itself gaining in significance, 
and being co-ordinated to a greater degree 
into a continuous whole. Here everything 
that happens in time gains its content and 
value from eternity, and hence remains directed 
beyond its immediate existence towards eter- 
nity. In mysticism, too, the soul of man, 
though it participates in the work of the 
world, retains a profound peace untouched by 
the confusion of the world. The next phase 



TIME AND ETERNITY 141 

has both an artistic and a speculative aspect. 
It brings the eternal more and more into the 
world as we know it, and there finally merges 
it completely. The movement of reality is 
conceived of as the unfolding of an all-embrac- 
ing being, w r hich thereby first attains to com- 
plete realization. Goethe has given the most 
impressive exposition of the artistic aspect, and 
Hegel of the philosophical. On this view life 
is not referred beyond itself to a transcendental 
being, but every individual manifestation stands 
within the life of a whole and is controlled by 
it. In this way life can gain depth in itself, 
and in the stream of time can grasp that which 
is above time. As Goethe said, the moment 
can become a representative of eternity. The 
final phase of the doctrine of evolution is when 
it reaches the level of natural science and 
Positivism. In this phase everything which 
makes any claim to eternity is placed entirely 
behind the process of life, and this vital process 
is regarded as consisting almost entirely of the 
movement and displacement of the elements. 



142 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

Then everything that takes place happens in a 
single plane, and is entirely exhausted in being 
what it is ; it has in no way to represent or to 
serve anything that exists behind itself. Hence 
there can be no question as to its having any 
sort of meaning. In this view life falls asunder 
completely into a mere juxtaposition of indi- 
vidual processes and a succession of moments, 
which may to a certain extent be summed 
up but do not form an inwardly connected 
system. 

These phases do not merely follow one 
another. The second in particular maintains 
its position alongside the third, but the main 
tendency of the movement is to concentrate 
itself more and more upon the sphere of im- 
mediate existence and to reject all persistence 
with ever greater vigour. At the same time 
there is outlined with increasing sharpness a 
particular type of life which fully develops the 
opposition between the old and the new way 
of life. On the earlier view, the highest aim 
was to live one's life from the side of eternity, 



TIME AND ETERNITY 143 

and to retain in life the presence of something 
eternaL But now the aim is to bind up life 
as closely as possible with the stream of time 
and the changing moment. Formerly, un- 
changeable ideals were held up for the guidance 
of action. Every enterprise had to be measured 
by these ideals and to conform to them, but 
now they are felt as intolerably narrow and 
oppressive ; equal rights and the fullest freedom 
are demanded for everything which aspires 
and struggles upwards. Thus life is subject 
to incessant change ; but the more it changes 
and the less it marks time and stagnates, the 
higher it seems to stand. Such mobility gives 
it immeasurably more freedom and fulness, 
freshness, and intimacy. And the individual 
departments of life are subject to similar 
changes. Education undergoes an essential 
change in that man is not now required to be 
educated for an ideal which transcends time, but 
for the needs of his own period. Legislation 
has no longer to enforce uniform demands, 
but must correspond to the existing situation 



144 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

and unreservedly follow its changes. In such 
a connection the conception of modernity 
gains a peculiar significance and power of 
attraction. If life is to be a success, the chief 
requisite seems to be, not to cling tenaciously 
to the old but to seize the fleeting and transi- 
tory moment, to make the most out of it, and 
to adapt one's life continually to it. It is only 
if we do so that it seems to become entirely 
our own life and to attain to what in this 
connection can be called truth. Thus we get 
rid of all rigidity ; values become fluid, and 
the stream of things carries off everything in 
its course. 

But what we thus desire for ourselves we 
must also grant to other periods ; we cannot 
understand them from our point of view, we 
must try to understand them from their own ; 
we cannot measure them by an absolute 
standard, but by that which they set them- 
selves to attain. Hence our historical judg- 
ments are only relative, and man develops 
the faculty of placing himself completely at 






TIME AND ETERNITY 145 

the point of view of all past systems, of re- 
constructing them and re-living them. Life 
thus gains an inmeasurable breadth and un- 
limited elasticity ; whatsoever moves mankind 
seems also to belong to us. 

But all the advantages which result from 
such mobility of life, such flexibility and 
adaptability on the part of the human spirit, 
have a reverse side, which may not necessarily 
affect the individual but spiritual work as a 
whole. All spiritual work needs co-ordination 
of the diversity of things, and control of our 
first impressions. It is impossible if the stream 
of phenomena carries man hither and thither 
like a plaything ; it needs a fixed standpoint, 
and can only find it in opposition to the dis- 
integration which we have described. Hence, 
in spite of the mobility of life, the creative 
efforts of the modern period have been eagerly 
directed from the beginning towards finding 
some sort of fixed point, from which the realm 
of movement might be understood and con- 
trolled. The only question is whether the 

10 



146 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

modern period has found such a fixed point 
and turned it to account, whether it could find 
it at all in the circle of life which it marked 
off. 

There are two ways in particular in which 
the modern period has sought to meet the 
advance of movement by something that is 
fixed: firstly, from the standpoint of philosophy, 
and, secondly, from the standpoint of natural 
science. Thought in the one case and natural 
law in the other, both of which are themselves 
exempt from all change, seemed to promise a 
sure support for the whole of life. 

Modern philosophy begins when Descartes 
turns from the overthrow of all tradition and 
the uncertainty of the existence of the external 
world, to the thinking ego as the Archimedean 
point, the existence of which no one can doubt. 
But when Descartes carries out his method in 
detail, it appears that it is not so much the 
individual point as thought itself which is to 
lead the investigator to certainty. What is 
clear and distinct for thought may be regarded 



TIME AND ETERNITY 147 

by us as truth. But thought could not 
recognize anything as clear and distinct if it 
were merely an empty vessel or a mass that 
yielded to every stimulus. For this purpose 
it must possess a fixed original endowment, 
and this endowment was thought to consist of 
indwelling truths, the so-called innate ideas 
(idece innatce). Only w r ith such an endow- 
ment could it oppose the stream of phenomena, 
and undertake to reshape the previous condi- 
tion of things according to its own require- 
ments. It was not only thinkers like Spinoza 
and Leibniz who defended such eternal truths 
with complete confidence. Kant was really 
defending them in another form when he 
maintained that all experience and all change 
necessarily presuppose a persistent intellectual 
structure of the mind. The whole of the 
Enlightenment also presupposes them when it 
endeavours to test everything that is handed 
down to it as to its reasonableness, and, if it 
cannot stand this test, to reject it or transform 
it. Through such a challenge to prove its 



148 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

rights before a timeless reason, the whole of 
life is vigorously shaken up, sifted, and renewed ; 
a culture which rests on a basis of reason 
advances in cheerful confidence to oppose the 
culture resting on history which had till then 
held the field. Thought thus becomes the 
measure of all things and the fixed point in 
the transitory series of phenomena. The con- 
ception of the nature and function of thought 
has undergone many changes in the course of 
the centuries, but it is a characteristic of the 
whole of modern culture that it assigns to 
thought that stablisliing and regulating function 
for which it looked first to the universe and 
later on to the Deity. The struggle of 
thought to appropriate the whole range of 
reality and to bring it under its own laws is 
the chief movement of modern times. 

But although much has been accomplished 
in the struggle, the result has not been an 
absolute victory. The carrying out of the 
undertaking was met by difficulties both from 
within and from without : from within, because 






TIME AND ETERNITY 149 



the foundation of thought itself gave rise to 
grave doubts and difference of opinion ; from 
without, because the immeasurable extent of 
the field of history offered an obstinate resist- 
ance to being enveloped and controlled by 
thought, and rejected more and more decisively 
all such attempts. Who is the vehicle of 
thought, where does it arise, and where is its 
centre of activity ? Descartes and the En- 
lightenment had no scruples in making the 
individual the vehicle of thought, thus pre- 
supposing an essential equality of reason in all 
individuals. If this presupposition is contested, 
and it soon was, then the universal validity of 
truth, and truth itself, is overthrown. Kant 
met such doubts by the assumption of an 
intellectual structure of the human mind 
anterior to all difference of individuals, which 
comes to light in great products — above all, in 
the construction of scientific experience and 
the development of the moral law. But 
doubts may easily arise as to whether these 
products are to be relied on, and are capable 



150 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

of only one interpretation, and these doubts 
will then extend to the common structure of 
the mind. When Hegel finally raised thought 
to the position of an all-embracing and all- 
moving cosmic power, he thereby surrendered 
all connection with the immediate life of the 
soul, and attributed to the mind of man a 
complete absoluteness which was bound to 
meet with the strongest opposition, especially 
in the nineteenth century, with its growing 
knowledge of the strict and narrow limits 
within which man is confined. Hence we are 
met by the dilemma that thought is either 
closely bound up with man and is involved in 
all the uncertainty and fragmentariness which 
cling to human existence, or else that it casts 
loose from the connection with man, overstrains 
its own powers, and, emulating the bold flight 
of Icarus, finally plunges into the void. 

Still more comprehensible than this inner 
perplexity is the resistance offered by historical 
life to the claim to control it made by a 
thought that transcends time. This opposi- 



TIME AND ETERNITY 151 

tion is met with at an early period, and the 
advance of historical modes of thought 
strengthens it. The experience of history 
shows with continually increasing clearness 
that the differences and changes of the periods 
not only extend to the inner depths of the 
soul but also affect the shaping of thought, 
that, at the most, certain elementary forms are 
of universal occurrence, which however are of 
no importance for the content of life. Hegel 
made a magnificent attempt to construct a 
world out of the forms themselves, and to 
bring into this structure the whole of historical 
reality. But not only do the living contents 
and the individuality of the historical structures 
fade away in Hegel's philosophy of history, 
but there also arises the strongest contradiction 
between history and the necessary demands of 
thought. Thought cannot take a general view 
of history without detaching itself from it and 
treating it as already closed. But this does 
away with the possibility of all further move- 
ment, and history is inwardly destroyed. But 



152 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

if history preserves the right of unlimited 
progress, then thought, from the point of view 
of history, will be seen to be merely the ex- 
pression of a particular time, "time grasped 
in thought." But then one period has the 
same right as another, and this does away 
with the possibility of thought being able to 
co-ordinate and illuminate history. If the 
first alternative leads to an intolerable fixity, 
the second leads to a no less intolerable 
relativity. For the great majority of mankind 
the movement of history has broken through 
the scheme imposed upon it, has gained a 
victory over timeless thought, and has vindi- 
cated the rights of relativity. Thought has 
thus been unable to make good its claim to 
raise life of itself to the level of that which is 
fixed and eternal. 

But still less successful is the attempt to 
do so from the side of nature, with the help 
of the conception of law. Modern investiga- 
tion has transferred the persistent quality of 
nature from composite structures to the 






TIME AND ETERNITY 153 

elements and their modes of action — natural 
laws are nothing else. This transference is 
no doubt a fact of the highest importance, 
but it does not mean that persistence is 
surrendered, only that it is carried further 
back. But even if these laws of nature could 
be simply transferred to the spiritual life, they 
would not solve our problem. For although 
the course of events may follow simple funda- 
mental forms, this does not give life any inner 
coherence, and does not direct the diversity 
of things to common ends. The reign of law 
would still leave us defenceless against the 
changing currents of life. We may all think 
in accordance with the same logic, and yet, 
under the influence of different interests and 
apperception - masses, reach fundamentally 
different results. Using the same forms of 
thought we may reach more and more widely 
divergent conclusions. 

Hence we are convinced that the element 
of fixity, which the modern period on its own 
ground opposes to movement, is either itself 



154 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

involved in conflict and movement, or else, 
so far as it is incontestable, does not satisfy 
the demands of the spiritual life and does not 
guarantee us the necessary support for our 
struggles and aspirations. The general result 
then is that the movement which emerges in 
the modern period does not find in it any 
sufficient counterpoise, that it is therefore 
bound to advance further and further with 
elemental force, and to destroy everything 
that still offers resistance. The same result 
is further promoted by the rapid acceleration 
of life on its external side — an acceleration 
which the latest period has carried out, and 
will carry out to a continually increasing 
extent, by quickening the means of inter- 
course, facilitating the communication of ideas, 
massing men in large aggregates, etc. Hence 
it is quite conceivable that within the move- 
ment itself the more uncompromising forms 
are more and more displacing the milder ; that 
all the persistent elements offered by the older 
conceptions tend to be slurred over and lost, 












TIME AND ETERNITY 155 

and, in particular, that persistent basis which 
the genuine theory of evolution supplied by 
its conception of a universal life gradually un- 
folding itself. Life becomes more and more 
an incessant change, a constant letting go 
and beginning again, a following of every fresh 
attraction, a floating away with the stream of 
things. If it is thus transferred entirely into 
the immediate present, as we saw, if it is 
freed from all the pressure of the past, and 
gains an agility and capacity for change which 
were formerly unknown, then it flatters itself 
that, with this movement towards modernity, 
it has attained the summit of the ages. 

But here, too, the rule is verified that the 
external victory, the complete permeation of 
the world by life-forces, is usually the beginning 
of a counter-movement, that the very ex- 
clusiveness of success sets limits, and that 
what is outwardly still advancing in triumph, 
may thus be felt inwardly as inadequate and 
even intolerable. The turn of the tide first 
becomes noticeable in a sudden revulsion of 



156 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

vital feeling, which completely alters the value 
ascribed to change. At first it seemed that 
the setting of life in motion, the stimulus to 
the powers, the continual production of fresh 
images, the opening up of ever fresh aims, 
the unbounded possibilities, were all pure 
gain ; life seemed to be made individual in a 
higher degree, and man to be brought in- 
comparably nearer to himself. The individual 
may still retain this estimate so far as, con- 
cerned only with his own welfare, he throws 
himself into the stream of life and seeks to 
advance on his way. But, as a thinking being, 
he cannot help reflecting on the whole, and 
asking the question, in all this excitement and 
strain, in all this toil and work, what is gained 
for the whole ? And if he does not covertly 
bring in other bodies of thought to make up 
the deficiency, he cannot fail to recognize the 
inner emptiness and meaninglessness of this 
life, the break-up of all connections. Hitherto 
men had seen only one side of movement, 
the inexhaustible wealth of novelties to which 






, 



TIME AND ETERNITY 157 



it gave rise : they had not seen the other 
side, their equally rapid disappearance, and 
the unsubstantiality of the inner life that 
results from such coming and going. A life 
of nothing but change cannot look forward to 
the future with any joy or certainty, for where 
there are no persistent aims, the future, as 
regards its spiritual character, is hid in deep 
obscurity, and we cannot tell whether to- 
morrow may not bring a complete revolution. 
Such a life has no fixed past, and therefore 
no history, for the constant change places 
things perpetually in a different light ; it is 
bound to make our past character and actions 
seem as if they did not belong to us, our 
own selves dissolve into a kaleidoscopic suc- 
cession of pictures. And least of all has such 
a life any genuine present ; a present which is 
spiritual in its nature. For mere time is not 
sufficient for such a present ; the time must 
also be filled with a content such as only 
persistent and co-ordinating aims can give it. 
Hut the absolute movement which we have 



158 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

described resolves life into smaller and smaller 
pieces, indeed into separate moments ; every 
attempt to grasp the present results in nothing 
better than mere opinion, the shadow of a 
present. Hence, as a general rule, if this life 
does not experience any sort of counteracting 
influence, it threatens in spite of all its activity 
to become a mere hankering after life, a half- 
life or phantom-life. We may add a fact 
which has been too often described to detain 
us now, viz., that the breaking-up of all con- 
nections inevitably hinders the inner elaboration 
of impressions and experiences, drives life and 
effort more and more to the surface, and 
makes them to a continually increasing extent 
defenceless and dependent on externals. There 
is the further fact that the different movements 
in the different departments easily come into 
conflict and find themselves at cross purposes, 
not only as between different men but also 
within the individual himself. If this is really 
the case, it can be easily understood how men 
grow tired and weary of all the rush and 



TIME AND ETERNITY 159 

bustle, which is so confused and yet in the 
end so empty, how this feeling of weariness 
spreads and produces a longing for more per- 
sistence, more peace and repose in life. It is 
a remarkable feature of the present day that 
the old mysticism is regaining its power of 
attraction, and that the Indian religions, 
which release men from the cares and troubles 
of time, are gaining many adherents also in 
the West. Is not this to be connected with 
the change in vital feeling which we have 
described ? 

Now, such a change does not prove much 
in itself ; it may, after all, be merely a part of 
the irregular ebb and flow to which mere 
movement reduces life. It can only be of 
use in so far as it enables us to take a more 
unprejudiced view of the whole problem, and 
free ourselves from the one-sidedness of our 
previous estimate. And this is in fact what 
usually happens in human life. Movements 
emerge, seize upon men's minds, and carry 
them irresistibly away. Men perceive only 



160 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

the results of these movements, their progress, 
their general direction ; they do not see their 
limitations, their presuppositions, the problems 
and, may be, the contradictions which emerge 
on a closer view. Hence they are proof 
against all attack, and no demonstration of 
their deficiencies and faults can affect them. 
No amount of sober reflection is of avail 
against the condition of intoxication with 
which they fill mankind. But in the end 
some limitation is felt, and then the move- 
ment's power of attraction quickly disappears. 
All the problems which it involved now stand 
out clearly, and the next step is to under- 
estimate, and in fact to treat unfairly, what 
was so long overestimated. We are ex- 
periencing to-day just such a reversal of 
opinion with regard to the attempt to reduce 
life to mere movement. It is a change which 
is first felt in the higher strata of the intel- 
lectual atmosphere, and not among the great 
majority of people who lag behind any move- 
ment and believe that something has come 






TIME AND ETERNITY 161 

ito existence when it has at last attracted 
their notice. We are becoming more and 
more clearly aware of the presupposition on 
which alone this belief in movement could 
take upon itself the guidance of the whole of 
life. The presupposition is that movement is 
a sure and constant ascent, that it can, out of 
its own resources, overcome all the obstacles 
which it meets with or produces out of itself : 
on this view it can never give rise to com- 
plications against which it is defenceless. In 
so far as this widens out to a general view of 
the world and history, it involves the demand 
not only that our reality shall be rational in 
its ultimate nature, but also that man shall 
be able to make himself absolutely certain of 
it. Rationalism and optimism are here in- 
dispensable. But optimism has not only 
aroused many misgivings when looked at from 
without : from within, also, it very easily 
appears superficial and untrue. We see clearly 
before our eyes the hard and pitiless struggle 

for existence both in nature and among men, 

11 



162 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

the constraint and insecurity of spiritual life 
in the world in which we live, but, above all, 
the insufficiency of man for the spiritual tasks 
on which the value of his existence depends, 
the wide interval between genuine spiritual 
culture and what men like to call culture. If 
we take a general view, human existence seems 
to be a grave contradiction. And, when we 
come to the more detailed shaping of existence, 
we begin to doubt the presupposition which 
underlies the interpretation of history as an 
evolution that becomes more and more rational, 
viz., the presupposition that movement starts 
from a fixed point and makes sure progress 
towards its goal, that any doubt which may 
arise only concerns details and cannot call in 
question movement as a whole. For the 
present state of opinion, with its complete 
uncertainty as to the final aims of man and 
the meaning of his existence, is sufficient proof 
that doubt does extend to the whole, and that 
the whole, if it is to have any influence upon 
us, requires on our part a continuous act of 






TIME AND ETERNITY 163 

recognition and appropriation. But if this is 
the case, then evolution cannot be the last 
word : action and decision must come before 
evolution. And at the same time we clearly 
see what difficulties lie in the relation between 
action and evolution, and how easily evolution 
can come into collision with the fundamental 
conception of history. Where evolution pre- 
vails, the order of the whole prescribes what is 
to be done at each point, and the direction to 
be followed : there is no choice and no freedom 
of decision. But without these there can be 
no history in the specifically human sense. 
To talk of historical evolution is, properly 
speaking, an absurdity. Where there is 
evolution there is no real history, and where 
there is history there is no evolution. For if 
we are to have history, the individual must 
have freedom of decision, but this is excluded 
by evolution. 

But, above all, the very attempt to deny it 
only demonstrates with greater clearness and 
cogency the old truth that there can be no 



164 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

real spiritual life unless it is raised above time, 
that otherwise the true is subordinated and 
sacrificed to mere opinion, the good to mere 
utility, and, generally, all independent spiritu- 
ality to the trivial round of merely human 
activities. Man, too, in the end cannot 
tolerate such distortion of the spiritual life, 
for it deprives everything which distinguishes 
him from nature of its end and meaning, and 
condemns his life to absolute emptiness. 
Emptiness, however, is more difficult to bear 
than pain. Hence the craving after happiness 
drives us continually to renew our demand 
for a truth which transcends time, and forces 
spiritual work, and philosophy in particular, 
to seek ways of securing it. 

When faith in the power of modern move- 
ment thus disappears, and a craving after 
some fixed content of life is re-awakened, the 
medieval system of the Roman Catholic 
Church may seem likely to solve our difficulties 
and may summon mankind to return to its 
fold. We found that this was the case when 



TIME AND ETERNITY 165 

we were considering the problem of finding 
connections in life. But such a return could 
only satisfy a few tired and faltering souls, 
for whom the visible and tangible is at the 
same time the spiritually certain : it is not 
capable of satisfying the demands of the 
spiritual life. Medieval thought rested on 
the presupposition and conviction that the 
height of human achievement in every sphere 
had been already reached, that there could be 
nothing essentially new. But this presup- 
position has been obviously refuted by the 
whole course of the modern period, with its 
fundamental transformation of human ex- 
istence. The man who, to avoid flatly con- 
tradicting the evidence of his senses, w r ould 
perhaps be willing to recognize movement 
outside of religion, and only wished to deny 
its existence inside, would by this means 
divide human life into two contrary species, 
and would assign our efforts to fundamentally 
different motives and feelings. He would 
produce an inner discord in the soul, which is 



166 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

fatal to the vigorous conduct of life, and 
absolutely foreign to the middle ages, which 
extended the tendency to persistence over the 
whole of life. Thus at that time religion 
could be regarded as in its whole extent 
exempt from all change only because men 
unhesitatingly accepted it, just as it was, as 
an undivided whole, because they had no 
insight into its gradual growth and the con- 
ditions of this growth. Only thus could it 
be entirely separated from the human sphere 
and regarded as a pure revelation of God. 
But now the scientific study of history has 
brought this department also under its sway, 
and proved how it was shaped in detail, very 
gradually at first, and under the strong 
influences of human needs, interests, and ideas. 
It is to confuse the human and the divine, 
and to do the divine a grave injustice, if for 
that system, which has in great part been 
recognized as human and temporal, a venera- 
tion is demanded which is the due of the 
divine and the eternal alone. Hence we 



TIME AND ETERNITY 167 

cannot solve our present perplexities by a 
return to the middle ages. 

But what is true of the middle ages applies 
to all the epochs and achievements of the past. 
They may help us on our way if we have an 
independence of our own to oppose to them, 
and if we can thus transmute them into 
our own life, but they are quite incapable 
of compensating us for the loss of inde- 
pendence. We are very fond to-day of 
evading the urgent problems of the present 
by seizing upon some culminating point of the 
past, by according to it unconditional venera- 
tion and absolute devotion, and then using it 
as a basis from which to supplement and 
consolidate the present. In doing so we 
usually emphasize the points of contact and 
minimize the differences, but we forget that 
the present situation sets us problems which 
are far too specific and far too pressing to 
admit of being solved or even essentially 
advanced by such indirect means. This re- 
course to history, which is evident to-day in 



168 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

all departments of spiritual work, yields at 
the best only a substitute for a real life of 
our own. A substitute is certainly better 
than nothing, but it produces the illusion 
that we possess the real thing when we are 
inwardly poor, and it threatens to limit our 
life to half truths, and indeed untruths. 

There is only one way left to overcome 
our present perplexities : humanity must go 
on with its independent work, it must use its 
own powers to bring about a new situation. 
The demand for a new type of life and a new 
type of culture becomes more and more in- 
sistent ; as the present crisis owes its origin 
to the whole of life, so it can be overcome 
only by a further development of the whole. 
The work of philosophy can only be helpful 
in this connection in so far as it takes its 
place in such a general movement, receives a 
stimulus from it, and exercises a return in- 
fluence over it. But within the whole, its 
first task is to get rid of the illusion of finality, 
to open up the way for wider possibilities, 



TIME AND ETERNITY 169 

and to restart the movement which intrinsic 
causes have brought to a standstill. But this 
task lent a particular value to a survey of 
universal history, as in general, so also in 
particular in connection with the problem of 
persistence and change: it has given us a 
wider view, it has revealed the most diverse 
relations and demands which our existence 
involves, it can use the experience gained in 
the general movement of history to point out 
to our own work more definite lines of attack. 
The general movement of history has not 
steadily followed one line with regard to our 
problem, but has swung completely round. 
The striving after persistence was predominant 
at first, and established its position more and 
more firmly in the course of time, until its 
own activity came to a complete standstill. 
When the modern period began, movement 
gained the ascendancy and transformed all 
standards and values. But the experience of 
mankind left no doubt that the exclusive, or 
even the partial predominance of movement 



170 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

gravely endangers the spiritual character of 
life : thus a reconciliation of the two tendencies 
becomes an urgent requirement. But this 
reconciliation is impossible, as is sufficiently 
shown by the study of history, if both meet 
on the same plane and are brought into im- 
mediate contact. For then rest relegates 
movement to an entirely secondary position, 
and condemns life to stagnation, or else move- 
ment makes itself master of the whole sphere 
and tends towards the break-up of all fixity. 
It is impossible to escape this dilemma unless 
a division and inner expansion of reality 
takes place, which brings rest and movement 
not into an oppositional but into a comple- 
mentary relationship. This is, however, hardly 
attainable otherwise than by a sharper separa- 
tion between spiritual life and human existence. 
Spiritual life needs to be clearly thrown into 
relief against human conditions in order to 
preserve its independence and transcendence of 
time, which are indispensable to its substance. 
In such a separation, to be sure, this substance 



TIME AND ETERNITY 171 

must not entirely disappear from the ken of 
man : it must somehow be a part of his own 
nature, and it must gradually work itself out 
from the indeterminateness of its beginning 
and allow us to take full possession of it, if 
this separation is to give rise to a particular 
kind of life. It would not be of much help 
to us if we could only open up the depths of 
our being with difficulty, and get a glimpse 
of them as in a dream ; we must be able to 
place ourselves immediately in them and share 
in their contents if our life is to undergo 
differentiation, gain thereby an inner breadth, 
and at the same time overcome the opposition 
between persistence and movement. But here 
movement is also indispensable, for the appro- 
priation of these depths needs much hard work 
and toil, which is subject to the conditions of 
time, and can only advance very gradually. 
But a movement of this kind has a fixed 
goal and a history. It is directed towards a 
spiritual substance and serves to promote the 
unfolding of a persistent truth : it cannot be a 



172 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

mere succession of periods of time ; it becomes 
a gradual movement away from time, and a 
progressive construction of a present which 
transcends time. When history is of this 
kind, our study of it need not helplessly follow 
the succession of periods, but can distinguish 
in the contents of history what belongs to the 
mere temporal situation from that which is 
eternal in its nature and can exercise a 
permanent influence. Such a study of history 
may lead to a deliverance from mere history, 
and to the revelation of a present which 
transcends time. 

But such a treatment of history cannot 
arise and make its way unless we grant that 
the world and human existence contain greater 
depths than are evident at first sight. The 
contradiction, that a truth which transcends 
time appears and plays a part in this world, 
which is in a state of becoming, can only be 
resolved if this world has an eternal order 
behind it, and, along with everything in it 
which is spiritual in its nature, serves to pro- 



TIME AND ETERNITY 173 

mote the unfolding of this order. If such 
depths are present in our world, in human 
creative efforts also we can distinguish a 
spiritual substance from everything which is 
merely temporal, and the apprehension of 
this substance enables us to overcome mere 
time. Then, particularly in the case of all 
that is great, we can recognize through the 
veil of time a life and work which transcends 
the world and is valuable for all ages. Hardly 
anyone at the present day will profess his 
adherence to the doctrines which such a per- 
sonality as Plato formulated, or the practical 
proposals which he made. But if, in spite of 
this, we hold Plato in the highest honour, and 
treat him as a living and powerful influence 
among us at present, we only do so because 
we recognize a creative power and a particular 
shaping of life, which may be called Platonic, 
and which was embodied in time in Plato's 
doctrines and proposals, but was by no means 
exhausted in them. The same is true also of 
general movements of historical life. In many 



174 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

ways we are out of sympathy not only with 
the ideas and dogmas of early Christianity, 
but also with the contemporary feelings and 
tone, but this does not in the least degree 
exclude the possibility that the revelation of 
spiritual life accomplished by it should pre- 
serve an indestructible freshness of youth and 
remain an ever-changing problem to the ages. 
Only, our life must not be lived on one plane 
in which temporal and eternal, merely human 
and spiritual, meet indiscriminately, but rather 
there must be an inner gradation in it, which 
takes place in virtue of the independence of 
the spiritual life — a gradation which distin- 
guishes as well as re-unites spiritual substance 
and the human appropriation of it. As, in 
order to be fully possessed by man, this sub- 
stance must first be acquired, a movement will 
arise here which, however, will not appear as 
an aimless journey to an infinite distance, but 
as a striving of life to return to itself, to raise 
and consummate its existence. 

This new way of treating history, this 



TIME AND ETERNITY 175 

esoteric way, as it might be called, produces 
a radical change of view, which is also seen in 
connection with the problem of persistence 
and movement. Here, too, the earlier periods 
must not be regarded as a dead past, but as 
something which remains bound to us by a 
community of work, and co-operates with us 
towards the up-building of a present which 
transcends time. Ancient thought could make 
such a point of the persistent only because it 
regarded the condition of the world as normal 
and needing no essential change, and because 
it believed that life was to be satisfied solely 
and entirely by its own efforts in raising itself 
to the status of a perfect work of art. Later 
experience has shown that this conclusion was 
premature, and that, in particular, human life 
contains far too many complications and con- 
tradictions to form at once a harmonious 
whole. But, however much these facts 
compel us to go beyond anything which the 
ancients attained or attempted, they do not 
invalidate the main motive of these en- 



176 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

deavours. Faith in the ultimate rationality 
of reality is the permanent basis of all spiritual 
life and effort : otherwise it immediately loses 
its support and is bound to collapse. Equally 
indestructible is the thought that life has to 
seek satisfaction not in the attainment of any 
external good but in its own unfolding and 
activity. Although the exact nature of the 
activity may have to be differently conceived, 
and the goal may recede to a far greater dis- 
tance, the fundamental thought is indispens- 
able if life is to be completely independent and 
really self-sufficient. 

Christianity destroyed this restful optimism, 
and threw mankind into a state of great agita- 
tion, by revealing grave disorders in the state 
of the world and life. The deepest root of 
these disorders was found in the ethical situa- 
tion, and the struggle against such perversions 
was made the cardinal point of life. It has 
often laid these disorders too directly to the 
charge of the individual ; it has applied ethical 
considerations too directly to the whole 






TIME AND ETERNITY 177 

breadth of the universe ; it has not developed 
its own power of affirmation to its utmost 
capacity, and, under the influence of periods 
of exhaustion, it has been too ready to 
dictate its own permanent form. But what- 
ever changes may be necessary in the tradi- 
tional order, the great revolution remains 
irreversible which delivered life from the sway 
of all merely natural processes, made a real 
history possible, and, by the opposition of 
affirmation and negation, stirred life to its 
foundations. The peaceful and even course 
of human existence is thus destroyed for ever : 
the new problems which are raised can never 
again disappear. 

We saw how the modern period began by 
giving complete recognition to movement, but 
we also saw this exaggerated to such an extent 
that movement was to produce all the contents 
of life. This attempt was bound to miscarry, 
but such a failure must not make us forget for 
a moment that it was this feature in life which 

first brought into prominence not only the 

12 



178 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

incompleteness of human existence but also 
its capacity for progress, and thus gave an 
immense impulse to our efforts. This has 
brought about a new situation: we may 
perhaps struggle and rise above it, but we 
cannot simply treat it as if it had never 
existed. 

All these different facts call for recognition 
at the present day, and prevent all immediate 
recurrence to one particular period. If they 
are to be reconciled with one another, not by 
a superficial compromise, but by coming to an 
understanding with one another, we must con- 
siderably extend the frame-work of our life 
and re-shape the vital process. It is obvious 
that this is impossible without the vigorous 
co-operation of philosophy, without the help 
which it can give by opening up the way and 
sketching the country to be traversed. The 
perplexities of life necessarily drive us back to 
philosophy and set it new problems. 

But philosophy will hardly be able to help 
in this work if, in dealing with these questions, 



TIME AND ETERNITY 179 

it does not make use of the experiences of the 
general movement of history and gain there- 
from definiteness of direction. Above all, it 
must seek for itself some fixed standpoint, 
and the experience of history has shown that 
it can hope to find this standpoint not in a 
being beyond the process of life but only 
in that process itself. This process again it 
cannot understand as the evolution of a unit 
confronting the world : it must lay hold of the 
life of the world in the very process itself. 
Such a world-life, however, cannot be reached 
by a freely ranging thought, but only by a 
self-centred spirituality, which partakes of the 
essence of things and moulds reality. Such a 
spirituality rises above the activities of the 
individual faculties, and also shows in great 
detail the task which thought has to accomplish 
and the direction it has to take. Hence philo- 
sophy cannot turn immediately to the uni- 
verse ; it must first strive to deepen life by 
introspection, and then try to discover connec- 
tions in life, and root itself firmly in them. It 



180 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

is only after such a strengthening process that 
it is equal to dealing with the world around us. 
Since, however, these connections in life are 
not immediately apparent to us, but are only 
revealed by means of work and struggle with 
resisting influences, it follows that we are 
involved in movement of all kinds, and need 
have no fear of relapsing into a permanent 
state of dull inactivity. But if in our search 
we are encompassed by spiritual connections 
and guided by spiritual necessities, if the 
spiritual life itself affords a firm foundation 
which is at the same time the highest goal of 
human endeavour, and if in this way what is a 
certain fact becomes at the same time a difficult 
task, then life, with all its movement, will not 
lose itself in uncertainty; however much it 
may appear to be struggling towards an un- 
certain and distant goal, it remains in the end 
occupied with itself and anchored in its own 
being. But if philosophy sets itself the task 
of giving a scientific form to its fundamental 
vision, and deducing a corresponding line of 



TIME AND ETERNITY 181 

conduct, it is then equal to dealing with the 
opposition between rest and movement ; it can 
then reconcile the eternal and the temporal, 
and can use them both to raise life to a higher 
level. 



CHAPTER III. 

The Outer World and the 
Inner World. 

Nothing drives man to philosophy with more 
urgency than a contradiction which arises 
within himself and makes him uncertain as 
to his own life and nature. We first find 
that we are sentient beings and form part 
of a visible world, from which we receive a 
constant series of impressions and which makes 
continual demands on us. But, at the same 
time, introspection teaches us that we have no 
direct experience of external things, but only 
of our own subjective states, and that there- 
fore what confronts us as an external reality 
must be evolved from within. Hence two 

realms arise which cannot be directly co- 
rn 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 183 

ordinated, and each strives to subordinate the 
other to itself, and indeed, as far as possible, to 
absorb it. The sensible world treats the life 
of the soul as a by-product, a mere reflection 
and shadow ; the psychical world, on the other 
hand, is inclined to degrade the sensible to a 
mere appearance which is purely subjective. 
According as we decide in favour of one or 
the other, our whole view of life will be com- 
pletely altered : different goods will attract us, 
different aims will control us, and this may 
easily be exaggerated to the antinomy that 
what from the one point of view seems valu- 
able and indispensable is from the other per- 
verse and reprehensible. The one regards the 
increase of material happiness as the supreme 
good, the other looks upon it as hindering our 
efforts to attain the right goal : to the one, 
absorption in the inner world is the acme of 
life ; to the other, it is a lapse into the vague 
and the vacuous. Where are we now to find 
out what we are and what we are not ? This 
is a problem which can never be postponed 



184 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

and handed over to the future. The urgency 
with which it calls for our decision is no less 
than our certainty that we are alive to-day, 
and wish to-day to attain satisfaction. Now 
our immediate impressions bring us to an irre- 
concilable opposition : we must therefore get 
beyond them, and what can be of any assistance 
to us except philosophy ? 

In reality philosophy has taken up the 
problem from the beginning, and all the more 
because the form which philosophy assumes 
depends very largely on the solution of this 
problem. But it is in the modern period that 
philosophy has devoted special attention to 
the subject. For the Enlightenment, with its 
violent separation between inner and outer, 
between what is conscious and what is ex- 
tended, cleared the situation and sharpened 
the contrast. This made a definite solution a 
matter of urgency, and men sought to find it 
by making the problem the main subject of 
investigation and comparing the different 
solutions that were possible. It was easy to 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 185 

take in these possibilities at a glance, and their 
number has not increased. The two worlds 
seem to be fundamentally different as regards 
their contents, and yet in real life inseparably 
bound up with one another. Which, then, is 
to take precedence, the maintenance of the 
specific character of each or their connection 
with one another ? Where the first alternative 
is chosen the result is dualism. If, on the 
other hand, we emphasize the connection of 
the two, we must press on to a unity which 
transcends the opposition. There are thus 
three different ways of reaching a solution. 
The first regards the material world as the 
only reality, and attempts to derive all 
psychical life from it. On the second view, 
the psychical is the only world that exists, and 
contains the material world in it. The third 
strives to attain a unity embracing both sides, 
which are regarded as the unfolding, the 
expression, the manifestation of the unity. 
Hence, beside dualism we find materialism, 
spiritualism, and monism in the narrower sense 



186 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

of the word. By removing the core of reality 
from one centre to another, each of these 
attempts places many things in a clearer light 
and co-ordinates much that is otherwise left 
incoherent. But each also meets with peculiar 
obstacles and must, in some way or other, try 
to overcome them. An enormous amount of 
effort is expended in doing so, but the struggle 
still goes on with varying success, and the 
adherents of each view r show a continually 
recurrent capacity for believing that they can 
finally refute their opponents. 

Dualism, with its separation between the 
material and the psychical worlds, is particularly 
calculated to display the specific character of 
each. It may boast of the clearness and 
definiteness of its conceptions, but it is flatly 
contradicted by a craving after unity, the 
existence of which is shown by our immediate 
perception of the close connection between 
body and soul; by art, which joins the 
material and the psychical in intimate union, 
and uses the one to enhance the other, and by 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 187 

thought, which insists on the ultimate unity 
of the universe. In favour of materialism 
we have our immediate impressions and the 
stubbornness of the sensible world ; its apparent 
simplicity and avoidance of all metaphysics : 
and the incontestable dependence of allpsychical 
processes on physical conditions. But what 
has especially promoted its influence among 
men is the fact that, in the conflict of opinion, 
it is thought to furnish the sharpest weapon 
against the oppression of obsolete systems, 
against tyranny, illusion, and superstition. 
Materialism, however, is contradicted by the 
incommensurability of what proceeds from the 
soul, of the unity and inwardness of psychical 
life, with what takes place in the domain of 
matter and motion, and by the building up 
of a specifically spiritual life in the sphere 
of history and society. The fact that the 
external world recedes into the background 
and that its existence becomes uncertain as 
the result of epistemological reflection, is also 
opposed to materialism. From this point of 



188 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

view it is impossible to hide from ourselves 
that nature, as we see it, does not come to us 
from the outside as a ready-made fact, but 
that it starts from our own thinking, and, 
under the influence of our intellectual organiza- 
tion, takes on the shape in which it lies before 
us. In fact,* the failure to recognize that we 
do not find the world but mould it and build 
it up from ourselves as centres, threatens to 
reduce materialism to a pre-scientific opinion. 
Spiritualism pursues the opposite course. It 
asserts the primacy of psychical experience 
and enforces its assertion, and it shows much 
energy in the logical working out of its funda- 
mental conception. But it cannot succeed 
in making clear the specific character of the 
sensational element which contrasts with the 
purely inward experience of the soul. Even 
if the division is transferred to the soul itself, 
it is not thereby overcome, but, rather, is 
likely to become still more intolerable. 

Monism seems to be the theory most con- 
sistent with our knowledge that neither series 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 189 

can be reduced to the other, but that, at the 
same time, they require some sort of connec- 
tion ; for monism makes them different but 
parallel sides of a single more essential process. 
This provides for the unity and also preserves 
the difference ; perfect equilibrium seems to 
have been reached of valuation and attune- 
ment. The only pity is that a keener 
examination soon shows that the opposition 
is only hidden and put in the background but 
not overcome. The parallelism between the 
two sides, which it is sought to reach, can 
never be attained. As soon as we pursue the 
fundamental conception somewhat further, we 
find that one side comes into prominence and 
relegates the other to a secondary position. 
We cannot study the historical forms of 
monism without becoming aware that they 
have approached, and finally passed over into, 
materialism or spiritualism, if indeed the two 
conceptions have not clashed and crossed in 
the same thinker. This was the case above 
all with Spinoza, whose Ethics starts from an 



190 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

unmistakably materialistic basis and reaches 
spiritualistic conclusions. Thus monism sinks 
back into the very confusion which it aimed at 
avoiding. 

We thus see that a twofold opposition per- 
vades the whole problem : we dispute as to 
whether there is unity or multiplicity, and we 
dispute as to where the unity is to be found. 
The one problem involves the other, and the 
dispute separates men further and further 
instead of bringing them together. How 
often has one theory " refuted " the other ! 
But the conquered and apparently annihilated 
theory has always risen up again with re- 
newed power. Have all the " refutations " of 
materialism prevented it from being the most 
widely prevalent view at the present day, and 
in fact feeling itself master of the situation ? 
Does not the fruitlessness of these learned 
disputes indicate that the discussions do not 
carry back the matter to the point of diver- 
gence — that this, rather, lies further back ? 
Another indication pointing to the same 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 191 

conclusion is the fact that each separate school 
has claimed a triumph over its special obstacles 
solely because it has had special views on 
what was of primary and what of secondary 
importance, because its general view involved 
a definite system of values. Hence its thought 
depended on the position it took up towards 
reality, and this, again, on the work, impressions, 
and experiences of the different individuals, 
and, in fact, of whole nations and periods. In 
the end it is the view which is taken of the 
whole of life which lays down the lines for 
thought and determines its direction. 

Thus the problem is transferred from 
thought to life and assumes a new aspect. 
For if we ask whether life is to take up its 
position outside or inside and conform itself 
accordingly, it does not behove us to interpret 
an existing process, but first to call the process 
into being. For our life is not given us as a 
whole without our co-operation, but presents 
itself at first as a juxtaposition and succession 
of individual processes : the binding into a 



192 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

whole is the work of the thinking and active 
spirit ; it is an attempt, a venture, which must 
always justify itself. But, in the last resort, 
such justification is possible, not by any out- 
ward achievement, but only if the attempted 
solution co-ordinates all diversity and binds it 
into a single and unified life. This neces- 
sarily raises the whole of life to a higher level, 
and enables us to make completely our own 
the life which otherwise only streams past us. 
It is only such a synthesis, too, which can 
overcome the indeterminateness of the initial 
situation and give life a definite character. 

There are different ways of carrying out this 
synthesis which our problem demands. In 
the first place, the world of the senses, which 
holds us so firmly in its embrace, which links 
us imperiously to itself by the obligation of 
waging a perpetual struggle for existence, 
may become the real scene of life. If so, all 
the peculiar powers of the human soul will 
rank merely as means and instruments to 
bring ourselves into closer relations with 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 193 

the sensible world, to appropriate it more 
fully, to gain more profit from it than is 
possible at the stage of merely animal exist- 
ence. But, on the other hand, the life of 
humanity in history and society has risen 
above the level of the senses : a non-sensuous 
life has appeared and continually develops 
richer and richer ramifications. Where the 
synthesis of the whole seeks its controlling 
centre in the new life, the sensible world will 
have to be subordinated and can only gain any 
value so far as it promotes the unfolding of 
this other life. This is the source of the main 
opposition — the opposition between a natural- 
istic and an idealistic basis for life and culture. 
But the relation between idealism and natural- 
ism can assume two forms, and this gives rise 
to a further division. The new life which 
idealism stands for while rising superior to 
the sensible world may do one of two things. 
It may yet seek to preserve friendly relations 
and a close connection with the sensible world, 

or else it may stand out in sharp relief against 

13 



194 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

it, and venture on absolutely independent paths 
of its own. The former species of idealism 
may be called immanent, the latter super- 
natural. Hence the struggle centres princi- 
pally round these three types, naturalism, 
immanent idealism, and supernatural idealism. 
Dualism, in the sense that there are two 
developments of life which run alongside 
without affecting one another, and only come 
into external contact, is excluded by the crav- 
ing of life after unity ; and this also excludes 
monism in the sense that there is a total life 
embracing two series running parallel courses 
in complete independence. The nearest 
approach to monism is made by immanent 
idealism, with its endeavour to reconcile the 
two worlds ; while supernatural idealism, which 
strives, on the contrary, to hold the two worlds 
as far as possible apart, is most closely related 
to dualism. History, to be sure, and in par- 
ticular the present day, shows a large amount 
of dualism in so far as men, and indeed whole 
periods, often distribute their efforts along 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 195 

different lines, and incline here to a natural- 
istic and there to an idealistic mode of thought. 
But this is an error which men commit ; it 
does not yield a new type of life, and need 
only occupy our attention incidentally. 

Hence the spiritual struggle goes on 
between the leading types which we have 
described. But the course of the struggle is 
not what we might expect : it does not start 
from universal principles and from them go 
on to details, but there arise concrete 
syntheses of an absolutely individual nature. 
These syntheses have, of course, universal 
questions and answers behind them, in fact 
they radiate a world-philosophy ; but above all 
they are characteristic facts in the life of the 
world, and it is from their individuality and 
actuality of achievement that they derive their 
power and significance. For it is only because 
they do not merely pore and brood over the 
conception of reality but vigorously set them- 
selves to produce something real, that they can 
raise the level of our existence, open up depths 



J 96 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

and powers in the spiritual life which before 
were hid, and help us to experiences which are 
of lasting value. It is also to be expected 
that, so far as there is any systematic connec- 
tion in historical life, the later forms of this 
life should take up and make use of the ex- 
periences of the earlier, and that thus the 
experience of the world should be welded into 
a unified whole and a general level of spiritual 
evolution attained. Anyone who takes a 
general view of the whole process can see 
what particular form the different syntheses 
have given to the relation between the inner 
and the outer worlds, and what answer to the 
main problem has been involved in the con- 
struction of the synthesis ; he can see what 
obstacles they met with and how they came 
to terms with them, what complications they 
fell into, and what further steps they were thus 
compelled to take ; finally, he can see how the 
overthrow of one synthesis helped the rise of 
another, and how the whole process led to a 
continual enlargement of the circle of life. A 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 197 

study of this kind is primarily historical in its 
nature, but it need not consist entirely in the 
unrolling of a succession of processes. For if 
the attempt is successful to decide, in what has 
been accomplished, between that which has 
grown out of special presuppositions and 
surroundings and that which reveals a per- 
manent capacity, and perhaps also permanent 
limitations, of the spiritual life, then co- 
existence may take the place of succession ; 
a present which transcends time may stand 
out in relief from the course of the ages, and 
seek to maintain its hold on all the real life 
which the different epochs have contributed. 

The peculiar position which the modern 
period takes up towards our problem makes it 
a matter of urgency to survey the whole of 
history in the way we have described, and 
emphasize what is of permanent value. The 
traditional systematizations of life gave 
idealism an undoubted ascendency ; for them 
it ranked as an incontestable and indeed self- 
evident truth. But now, in opposition to this 



198 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

devotion to an invisible world, naturalism has 
more and more emphasized the importance of 
the visible world, and is thus pressing idealism 
further and further into the background. In 
addition, the onward movement of culture has 
shown the existence of much confusion within 
idealism itself, and it has been weakened by 
the fact that the new methods of studying 
history, with their keener criticism, have 
discovered much variation and inconsistency 
in the traditional idealistic forms of life which 
were formerly accepted without hesitation as 
homogeneous. But, in spite of everything, 
there are many obstacles in the way of natural- 
ism. For idealism has cut its way too deeply 
into our convictions, efforts, and conceptions, 
to be likely to succumb at once to a bold 
assault. But, all the same, we have fallen into 
a state of great uncertainty ; the existence of 
the invisible world has become doubtful and 
the visible world does not satisfy us. Such a 
state of uncertainty as to the direction which 
life ought to take must inevitably cripple its 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 199 

power and joyousness. It is certain that the 
crisis can only be overcome by an actual 
further development of life ; and it is equally 
certain that this development cannot come 
down from heaven to us, but must be set in 
motion by ourselves. For this purpose we 
cannot dispense with the active help of 
philosophy in clearing the way, taking bear- 
ings, and acting as pioneer. And if the 
immediate duty of philosophy in this connec- 
tion is to free us from the contingency of the 
moment and to bring before us human experi- 
ence in its utmost possible range, it will un- 
doubtedly be a valuable contribution to this 
end if we carry out a critical scrutiny of the 
great syntheses of historical life, with their 
revelations and experiences. 

We naturally begin our journey through 
history with the solution which our problem 
received when Greek life was at its culmina- 
tion. Let us not forget for a moment that 
the average life of the time did not attain this 
height, but was in many ways sharply opposed 



200 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

to it. This culminating period, however, 
welded life into an artistic whole, which in 
a pre-eminent degree embodies for us the 
system of immanent idealism. Here the 
artistic element is, above all, plastic in its 
nature : as regards its spiritual content, life 
is a transformation of reality into a whole 
endowed with soul, and therefore well ordered 
and clearly graded. This process of trans- 
formation has two opposite sources — on the one 
hand, spiritual activity, and, on the other, 
nature as perceived by the senses ; but the 
two streams converge and unite to form a 
comprehensive vital process which finds its 
full satisfaction in itself. Here the spiritual 
is certainly the controlling element : it is the 
source of all movement, it revivifies and 
imposes form on the sensible. The latter, 
with its formlessness, may seem at first the 
exact antithesis of the spiritual, but to a 
deeper study it soon reveals itself as some- 
thing which expects and struggles towards the 
ordering and quickening influence of spirit. 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 201 

In this way both can meet as elements in a 
harmonious life, and the one can help the 
development of the other. For even the 
higher element, which imposes form on the 
lower, is not perfect and complete without the 
help of the other : it is only by the subjuga- 
tion of matter that it attains the full measure 
of its own power, development, and perfection. 
This type of life gives both spiritual life and 
nature, to use these abbreviated expressions, 
a characteristic form and task, as it thus 
establishes a friendly co-operation between 
the two. The spiritual, however much it is 
raised above the sensible, does not sever itself 
from the one reality which embraces them 
both : it does not form for itself an inner life 
which neglects the world, but it finds its task 
in uniting and revivifying this world and 
raising it to a higher level. Hence in its 
inmost nature it is an incessant working and 
creating, virile power and joyous activity ; its 
fundamental impulse thus seems to be towards 
the undeviating pursuit of the true and the 



202 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

good. At the same time, however, the 
sensible, because of its close connection with 
the spiritual, remains indispensable at all its 
stages. Whatever stimulus to the senses life 
offers is recognized and retained ; only it must 
fit in and subordinate itself to the whole ; it 
must occupy a definite place and be bound by 
definite limits ; but at the same time it will 
be purified and ennobled. Hence the charac- 
teristic and great achievement of this type of 
life is, above all, that it has brought together 
into the closest and most fruitful connection 
spirit and nature, form and matter, and has 
thus made the spiritual vividly near to us and 
raised the sensible to a higher level. Here all 
oppositions seem to be reconciled, all contra- 
dictions overcome ; life is co-ordinated into a 
unified whole without detracting in any way 
from the diversity of things. Hence it can 
feel itself firmly established on its own basis 
and equal to dealing with all the complications 
of existence. 

Such a type of life is seen among the Greeks 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 203 

in its purest development in the sphere of 
plastic art. Nowhere else in the whole range 
of history is a world of spiritual objects and 
values brought so near to man in an immediate 
present ; nowhere else are the visible and 
invisible worlds so closely interwoven. But 
philosophy also takes part in this movement, 
and does so in the first place, at least where it 
gives expression to the Greek mode of life in 
its purest form, by uniting the inner and outer 
world, under the control of the former, into a 
life which rests upon itself. It is Aristotle 
who gives the completest scientific expression 
to this view. But, apart from the particular 
contents of Greek philosophy, we find merely 
in the mode of its operation a unique recon- 
ciliation between the inner and the outer. 
For in it content and form are not separated, 
and thought is not left painfully struggling 
with a refractory matter, but the work of 
philosophy does not cease until it has over- 
come all contradiction and given a clear 
and exact representation of thought. Such 



204 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

efforts on the part of philosophy have pro- 
duced at all stages of the movement of 
history well-marked types of thought, which 
have indelibly impressed themselves on the 
consciousness of humanity. 

A similar creative activity pervades the 
whole of Greek life. All the inner life that 
strives to find outward expression succeeds in 
gaining complete embodiment, and everything 
that is external has soul and shape put into it. 
It is this above all that gives rise to a coherent 
spiritual reality and lends the life which is here 
unfolded a wonderful power of attraction. 
Much that is temporal and particular may also 
come in, but the heart and core of the whole 
lies beyond all contingency and is capable of 
exercising a permanent influence. For here the 
primary phenomenon of the form makes itself 
clearly and strongly felt ; the fact is convincing 
that, on a spiritual basis, the inner can mould 
itself on the outer and the outer can become 
an expression of the inner. This gives clear 
expression to a general experience of human 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 205 

life, the experience that, in life, the inner is 
imperfect in many ways, and that it can pass 
from indefinite outline to definite shape only 
if it can find outward expression. In this 
connection the outer, far as it may fall short 
of being a factor with equal rights, yet seems 
indispensable in order to drive the inner to 
definite decision and complete organization ; 
with its power of stimulation and reaction it 
is an important element in the process of life. 
All artistic creation proves the truth of this, 
and thereby furnishes, as Goethe said, the 
happiest assurance of the eternal harmony of 
existence. But the clearest proof of it is the 
indirect one from the experience of humanity. 
For wherever form has been despised and 
neglected, life has soon degenerated and finally 
sunk into barbarism. Form, with its close 
union of inner and outer, is indispensable in 
order to call forth spiritual life, bring it to full 
power, and make it penetrate the breadth of 
things. Hence it can be easily understood 
how it was possible that form should become 



206 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

the central conception of a cult of immanent 
idealism. 

But just as the creative efforts of the Greeks 
show us this at its highest, so their experience 
also proves the existence of many limitations 
and complications. These are bound to be- 
come objections and obstacles if the artistic 
order described above is taken as the final 
achievement and the whole of our life. In the 
first place, this solution contains presupposi- 
tions which are by no means self-evident. It 
can only form the highest achievement of life 
if the spiritual impulse is strong, and, with its 
superior powers, can subdue and shape the 
sensible world ; if, in addition, the life of the 
senses is healthy, if its natural power to strive 
upwards is unspoilt, and if it willingly fits into 
the frame that is provided for it ; and if, finally, 
the movements from the one to the other 
unite in ready and friendly fashion to form a 
common life. All together demand that life 
should attain a height which is only reached 
under special circumstances, and which deter- 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 207 

mines the general character of existence only 
in rare periods, and then only for a spiritual 
aristocracy. 

We also find complications in the funda- 
mental nature of this artistic idealism, so far 
as it claims the direction of the whole of life. 
The unification of form and matter must not 
be a mere combination and arrangement of 
them. Their efforts to come together can 
only yield a spiritual content if form has a 
soul and can communicate it to the whole of 
its product. But whence is form thus endowed 
with soul ? This leads to the further question, 
how are we to conceive in this connection of 
the position of spiritual life generally ? If it 
possesses a superiority over the formative 
process, and if, in order to preserve the purity 
of the form, this superiority is vigorously 
emphasized, then there arise two worlds, as 
Plato clearly shows us. But this gives rise to 
enormous complications. If form, however, 
is to operate only within the process, as the 
tendency is, especially in the case of Aristotle, 



208 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

then it threatens to lose in spiritual content 
and has difficulty in preserving its purity. 
Here we recognize the Achilles' heel of this 
artistic idealism. On one alternative it pre- 
supposes a large amount of inner life, which is 
self-contained and self-sufficing: in this case 
human life can hardly find complete satisfaction 
in mere systematization, mere art becomes too 
narrow for it. The second alternative is that 
the moulding and shaping are treated as com- 
plete ends in themselves : from this it is not 
far to the position that they are a mere embel- 
lishment of existence as it is given, a mere 
refinement of life, and thus they easily lose 
their significance. Thus the artistic solution 
points beyond itself to a further totality of 
life. 

The later ages of antiquity place this problem 
before us in broad outline. The sensible and 
the spiritual, which were so closely united 
when creative effort was at its height, dissolve 
the union and diverge further and further. 
The spiritual tries more and more to acquire 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 209 

a complete inwardness. The result of this 
tendency is that, with the vigorous co-opera- 
tion of philosophy, first of all morality and 
then religion becomes independent. But, 
however much depth of soul is thereby won, 
and to however large an extent sense-existence 
finally sinks to a mere symbol, the spiritual life 
is able to give no effective content to the con- 
dition of inward isolation and self-sufficiency 
which it reaches. The main reason for this is 
that thought desires to produce a reality from 
itself, while as a matter of fact it only comes 
to forms and relations which strive to detach 
themselves from all perception, and float over 
reality like ill-defined shadows. In this way, 
to be sure, the spiritual wins a realm of its 
own, but its emptiness would be immediately 
perceived if religious feeling did not in- 
cessantly revivify and put warmth into the 
cold products of thought. But as culture 
becomes increasingly polished and subjective, 
the sensible element loses more and more the 

robustness of an earlier period and sinks into 

14 



210 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

feeble refinement, and indeed inward corrup- 
tion. It is not to be wondered at that the 
spiritual life became hostile to the sensible, 
that men not only strove to repress the latter 
as far as possible, but that asceticism made 
this repression the main content of life. In 
spite of this change, the old ideal of the 
artistic shaping of life retains its influence in 
many directions, and form continues to rank 
as a conception of high value. But it only 
does so in opposition to the main stream of 
life, though the opposition passed unnoticed, 
and it cannot alter the fact that the classical 
harmony of the two worlds is transformed in 
the end into a sharp division. The whole 
course of Greek history presents us with the 
spectacle of the gradual retreat of the sensible 
world before the spiritual. In the beginning 
the sensible world took complete possession of 
man, but the craving after spiritual self-pre- 
servation drives him to the elaboration of a 
super-sensible world. It was not Christianity, 
and certainly not the modern period, which 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 211 

first gave rise to the idea of a purely inward 
life : the Greeks won it for the general system 
of culture by painful work and experience, and 
thereby prepared the ground for new systema- 
tizations of life. 

Christianity also turns away from the 
sensible world, but it succeeds in giving this 
self-centred and self-sufficing inner life a great 
work to do and a rich content. It ac- 
complishes this when, in unmistakable con- 
nection with later Judaism, it transfers the 
centre of gravity of life from the intellectual 
and cosmic to what is ethical and personal. 
The result is a complete transformation, since 
the fundamental relation of human life is no 
longer the relation to a visible or invisible 
universe, but the relation to a perfect Spirit 
who is above the world. In this way new 
aims and standards are revealed which bring 
the whole of life face to face with tasks of 
great importance. The object to be aimed 
at is union with this perfect Spirit, a demand 
for which the existing condition of humanity 



212 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

is not only inadequate, but with which it 
even appears to be in direct contradiction. 
To end this conflict, which involves the whole 
of the soul, now becomes the supreme 
necessity. This is impossible if we start from 
the existing condition of the soul ; for this 
purpose a new and purer nature is needed, 
and hence the task is raised above all human 
capacity. Such a necessity for what is im- 
possible must bring about a huge convulsion. 
But if the conflict grows more acute, 
Christianity shows a way of overcoming it ; 
it confidently preaches a redeeming and 
sanctifying love, which frees man from all 
perplexity, enables him to share in the per- 
fection of divine life, and vouchsafes him full 
blessedness. 

On this scheme the inner life itself contains 
great contrasts, movements, and experiences. 
The utmost extremes of absolute despair and 
certain assurance are at work and intensify 
one another. The tension of the whole is 
increased by the conviction that the trans- 






THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 213 

formation of human life is not a mere private 
concern of man, but that the refusal of it 
signifies a revolt against the divine will, a 
violation of a sacred world-order, and there- 
fore involves the disintegration of man. 
Hence this life will necessarily feel that it is 
the heart and core of the whole of reality ; it 
will regard all other life as a mere setting, 
and will grant it no independent significance. 
At the same time it must uphold its complete 
superiority over all nature. It not only 
understands nature around us as a work of 
spirit: it is more important that, within 
man, it puts on a lower level all activity 
which proceeds from merely natural powers, 
and stringently prohibits its entry into the 
sphere of moral action. Thus a thinker like 
Augustine, who throws the oppositions into 
sharp relief, could regard ancient morality 
not only as insufficient but as a perversion 
{virtutes veterum splendida vitia). 

Hence the life which arises on this ethico- 
religious basis is of a strictly supernatural 



214 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

character. Here the spiritual life has abso- 
lutely no need of being supplemented by 
nature, but it contains its task as well as its 
power within itself. But the sensible is not 
therefore declared to be bad and treated as an 
enemy. Where this has taken place within 
Christianity, it is in contradiction to its funda- 
mental tendency. For on this point Christi- 
anity is clearly and consciously at variance with 
the later ages of antiquity : to it the decisive 
opposition is not that between the sensible 
and the supersensible, but that between good 
and evil. The root of evil is not a deficiency 
in spiritual capacity, but moral guilt. But the 
sensible remains a subordinate sphere, which 
has to be completely subservient to the ends 
of the spirit : it possesses value not in itself 
but through the part of the higher order to 
which it gives expression, or through what it 
accomplishes for the higher order. Hence it 
can never form the sole domain of human 
endeavours, but always points beyond itself, 
and, with all its palpability, as far as the soul 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 215 

of man is concerned it remains an external 
world. 

We shall see what dangers and complications 
are produced by the unfolding of this system 
of life in the sphere of humanity and under 
special historical conditions. At the same 
time we shall have to examine whether, from 
the very beginning, the whole is not burdened 
with difficult problems. But before we discuss 
these questions we must fully recognize the 
primary phenomenon of the spiritual life, which 
here unfolds itself. The spiritual life here 
discovers in itself immeasurable depths, sharp 
contrasts, mighty tasks. If it formerly ranked 
as of incontestable worth throughout its whole 
existence, there now arises in it an inner 
division, a cleavage, the overcoming of which 
becomes the task of tasks. Man's own nature 
thus becomes his chief problem, and this means 
that his life is withdrawn from external 
activities and principally occupied with itself. 
The purely inward life thus gains independence 
and a completely satisfying content. At the 



216 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

same time a change takes place in the value 
put upon action in that it does not need any 
external results to make it complete, but finds 
that its main business lies in the purely inward 
life. Then only does the internal disposition 
cease to be a dead accompaniment and become 
an active process ; thus men are freed from 
the bondage which may come not only from 
external relations but from the unalterableness 
of the nature of the soul. A life which is based 
upon freedom of action rises above all merely 
natural processes ; a struggle commences 
between freedom and fate. The independence 
which is thus won not only seeks to make man 
master of his own nature, but it prevents him 
from accepting his sense - existence as an 
assigned destiny and from yielding to it with- 
out a struggle. It calls upon him to master 
the life of the senses, and insists on shaping it 
conformably to the ends of the spirit. The 
importance of this is shown in particular by 
the beginnings of Christianity. For in taking 
up with courage and confidence the struggle 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 217 

against a weak sensuousness pervading all the 
relations of life, it strengthened and consoli- 
dated men against the disintegration which 
threatened to carry all before it, and, by in- 
creasing their self-confidence, prepared the way 
for a movement of ascent. 

In the actual world of history these trans- 
formations, these deepening and liberating 
movements, have always produced only inade- 
quate results : in the consciousness of mankind 
they are liable to be temporarily obscured and 
forgotten. But they cannot be simply can- 
celled ; they have produced so much change 
in life on its inner side that any further move- 
ment of humanity must come to terms with 
them. It is impossible for man to resume 
without question the earlier naive relations in 
which he stood to his environment and his own 
nature, and to find full satisfaction in their 
development. Where the working-out in 
detail of this ethico-religious system of life 
provokes to contradiction, it often happens 
that the fundamental thought of the deepen- 



218 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

ing and ethical awakening of life maintains its 
position all the more strongly. Where the 
answers no longer receive assent the questions 
remain. They, too, are forces which drive life 
in a definite direction and give it a specific 
character. Hence the new systematization of 
life which we owe to Christianity not only 
cannot be erased from history but remains one 
of its leading features : in fact, as revealing a 
depth which controls all the rest of life, it is 
above all the changes of history. It continues 
to work openly or in secret throughout the 
ages, and this proves that it belongs to that 
timeless present which is the subject of our 
investigation. 

But all the truth and greatness of Chris- 
tianity have not prevented it from being a 
subject of constant strife. It is not only from 
outside that it has continually experienced the 
severest attacks, unless these have been sup- 
pressed with an iron hand, but it has been 
torn with internal dissensions which have 
extended beyond the domain of conceptions 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 219 

to the shaping of life. Everything indicates 
that the main tendency, when it is worked out 
in detail, contains a complication ; we shall 
see that it is just the relation between the 
inner and the outer worlds which is here in 
question. Christianity stands for a new world, 
as opposed to that which immediately surrounds 
men, and it cannot give up either of these 
worlds ; a " monistic " Christianity is an 
absurdity which can only please a confused 
thinker. But to maintain the existence of 
two worlds still leaves it an open question 
how they are related in detail to each other : 
the particular point is, how the world, which 
is on the one hand transcendent and superior 
to man, can become his own, and come into 
close touch with his soul. It is certainly part 
of the fundamental conception of Christianity 
to make the supramundane order powerfully 
operative in our world as well, but the relations 
of one to the other are not completely adjusted. 
The supramundane order remains in the first 
place a Beyond, which exists alongside our 



220 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

world and is bound to lead us away from it 
by drawing us to itself. But, at the same 
time, instead of creating a present which 
transcends time, it remains too much a matter 
of mere expectation, a hope to be realized in 
the future. This not only leads to the greatest 
confusion in particular directions, but it gives 
the whole of life a character which is bound to 
arouse doubt and opposition. Since the trans- 
cendent Spirituality affects us here chiefly as 
an order working upon us from the Beyond, 
our whole life receives a specifically religious 
character, and is thereby driven into a channel 
which may satisfy particular periods but which 
is too narrow to be permanent. Christianity 
was established in an age which was wanting 
in vigorous vitality, and was chiefly intent on 
gaining a safe harbour of refuge. But it 
seemed that this could be found only in 
opposition to the confused activity of the 
world, in a supernatural order. The sharper 
the division became, the more certain men 
felt of themselves and the stronger was the 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 221 

position of the divine revelation, which came 
to us only by a miracle. It would be irrelevant 
to treat of the objections raised by later ages, 
when vitality was at a higher level, but it is of 
course important to consider how the relation 
between the inner and the outer worlds had to 
suffer through this tendency. 

Above all, there arises a sharp opposition 
which runs through the whole history of 
Christianity, and finds expression particularly 
in the shaping of creeds : we allude to the 
opposition between an inwardness which with- 
draws from the visible world, and an adapta- 
tion to this world, with the accompanying 
danger of an intrusion of the sensible into the 
spiritual. Where the inner life springs from 
the relationship to a transcendent Deity, and 
finds its chief task in the development of this 
relationship, it is easy for anyone to be in- 
different to his earthly environment, to face 
all injustice in silence, with patience and 
resignation, to make no attempt either to 
grapple with the irrationality in the world, 



222 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

or to raise it to an essentially higher level. 
Can we deny that the modern period has 
intervened in the general relations of life much 
more powerfully and helpfully than Christi- 
anity, though the latter dominated for so long 
the souls of men ? Who abolished slavery, 
who carried through a universal system of 
popular education, who has attacked the social 
problem on a grand scale ? The inwardness 
which we have described, with all its delicacy 
of feeling, was too feeble and too aloof from 
the world to exercise any power of penetrating 
and organizing it. Where spiritual emotion 
does not somehow turn into activity it runs a 
great risk of becoming an inert brooding over 
things, a purely subjective feeling, an empty 
mood. It does so, of course, only where the 
seriousness of the religious life has faded away, 
a pre-eminent example of which is the purely 
intellectual Christianity of modern times. 
And even where men are willing, they are 
often very helpless in dealing with the world : 
nor can we deny the further fact that, in the 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 223 

life which is ruled by Christianity, the depth of 
soul and the tenderness of the fundamental 
experience have often been unsuccessful in 
preventing great barbarity, and in fact 
brutality, of outward action. Or were not 
the Inquisition and trials for witchcraft carried 
on in the name of Christianity ? There is thus 
a dualism of life, which cannot be permanently 
endured. 

But in Christianity itself there was vigorous 
opposition to the movement towards an in- 
wardness superior to the world. This move- 
ment would probably have made Christianity 
a religion of mere individuals, if from the 
beginning its efforts had not been directed 
towards establishing a kingdom of the new 
life, and helping the whole of mankind. Even 
on the ground of history nothing distinguishes 
it more from other religions than the forma- 
tion of a church that is definitely marked off, 
and claims to embrace the whole of humanity. 
But this enterprise could not be carried out 
without taking into consideration the general 



224 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

situation, and also the opinions and interests 
of men. If now this situation was accepted as 
essentially unalterable, it was naturally im- 
possible to avoid accommodation to it in 
many ways, and the consequent intrusion of 
sensible elements into the world of religion. 
It is thus emphatically the case not so much 
that a new world is formed as that the old 
world and its modes of thought are trans- 
ferred to the domain of religion. How sen- 
suous are the ideas of a God who is provoked 
to anger by sin, and must be appeased by 
some sort of atonement ! How sensuous are 
the ideas of reward and punishment, of pur- 
gatory, of heaven and hell, and the whole body 
of eschatological doctrine ! In addition, the 
spiritual exhaustion at the beginning of Chris- 
tianity, which has been often alluded to, was 
bound to strengthen the sensuous element. 
Men wished to be perfectly sure, at any cost 
and without any risk to themselves, of the full 
reality of the spiritual, and so they insisted on 
a sensuous embodiment in order to be absol- 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 225 

utely certain of it. Hence they demanded 
facts which appealed to their senses, over- 
powering impressions, visible pledges, such as 
we find in the clearest form in the conception 
of the sacrament. For the sensible is here 
much more than a mere means and instru- 
ment ; it belongs to the essence of the matter, 
and the communication of divine powers is so 
closely bound up with it that a man's own 
disposition in the matter may easily become 
a secondary consideration (sacramenta non 
solum significant, sed causant gratiam). There 
is the closest connection between this and the 
fact that, the more the consciousness of his 
own weakness makes man look for deliver- 
ance solely to supernatural grace, the more 
religious it may appear to deny him, as far as 
possible, all activity of his own, and to repre- 
sent the new life merely as " streaming into " 
him as into a passive vessel. Hence the 
inclination spreads to make sure of spiritual 
processes by binding them to sensible forms, 

to give to outward and tangible performances 

15 



226 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

a value which is in direct contradiction to the 
efforts of Christianity after inwardness. The 
final result is a materialising of the spiritual 
life, which leads at the same time to a 
suppression of all free movement. 

A similar problem also appears both in the 
conception of the Church and in its activity. 
This activity is in the interests of the kingdom 
of God ; its object is to subordinate all external 
processes to the ends of the inner world. But 
it cannot meet with any success without com- 
ing to terms with the world as it is, and 
making use of the means which it provides. 
The result is that it falls under the influence 
of this world, and may be overborne by it to 
such an extent that the main aim is completely 
obscured. 

We thus see the opposition in its fullest 
development : we have on the one side an 
inwardness withdrawn from the world, and, 
on the other, the inner overborne by the outer. 
Though there are constant endeavours within 
Christianity to effect some sort of reconcilia- 






THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 227 

tion, the confusion lies too far back to permit 
of anything but a tolerable compromise being 
attained. Do we not see in Christianity, with 
particular clearness at the present day, the op- 
position between a freely ranging subjectivity 
and a sense-bound organization ? 

The main trend of modern life puts the 
problem of the outer and the inner worlds in 
a very different light. The stream of life is 
once more directed upon the world, but now 
the main point is not merely to contemplate it 
but to lay hold of it vigorously, to get full 
possession and enjoyment of it. The inward- 
ness that has been won is not by any means 
given up in principle, but is now expected to 
communicate itself to the whole of reality, 
and in this communication to increase its own 
power and joyousness. We saw how the main 
task of modern times lies in the enhancement 
of life, and how this enhancement does not 
serve an end beyond itself, but itself becomes 
more and more its own completely satisfying 
goal. But as the carrying out of this process 



228 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

makes it necessary that diversity should be 
reduced to unity and the oppositions should 
show a tendency towards reconciliation, the 
inner and the outer worlds cannot remain 
separate; the life of the whole continually 
directs them towards one another ; the one can 
develop its power and reach its highest level 
only in contact with the other. Although they 
may thus form different starting-points, they 
approach one another and become more and 
more closely interwoven, and the advance of 
the process of life may here be regarded as 
a progressive overcoming of the opposition. 
The supersensible strives to unite with the 
sensible in order to win its full power in the 
movement of the latter. Thus we see that all 
the ideas and principles which have emerged 
in modern times are filled with a fiercer long- 
ing to master the sensible world and penetrate 
to its furthest ramifications. Only by doing 
so do they seem to step from the realm of 
shadows into clear and full reality, and at the 
same time demonstrate their truth. Hence 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 229 

the time for a timid severance from the 
sensible is now past, nor can the latter any 
longer be despised. From the other side, 
modern life and work enable the sensible to 
appropriate in an increasing degree the features 
of the spiritual, and they bring it nearer and 
nearer to the spiritual. Nature renounces its 
old palpability ; it no longer lies before us as 
a realm of impenetrable matter, but is trans- 
formed into a web of forces and relations, 
held together by a causal order accessible to 
thought. In this system of life, whose funda- 
mental principles are the increase of power 
and constant progress, material goods also 
appear in a higher light than at earlier 
periods, when their pursuit was thought to 
be the outcome of a lower way of thinking. 
For now they become indispensable means to 
the development of human power and the 
overcoming of obstacles : it is not so much 
sensuous enjoyment as the increase of power, 
the mastery over things — and thus something 
supersensuous — which makes them valuable. 



230 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

If one thus grows by means of the other, it 
seems that there is only a single world and a 
single life encompassing man, and the tendency 
towards union which we have described seems 
completely to reconcile idealism and natural- 
ism. Thus the division which opened in front 
of Christianity seems to be happily overcome. 
The systematization of activity into work, 
in which the modern period considerably sur- 
passes earlier epochs, was of great significance 
for this result. For the modern period has 
made vigorous attempts to free human action 
from all subjectivity, and to connect it closely 
with its objects : it forms great complexes of 
work, recognizes in them their peculiar laws 
and motives, and lets these latter control 
human action. While man thus identifies 
himself with the special necessities of things, 
the latter come incomparably nearer to him 
and grow to be parts of his own nature. In 
the world of human work the inner and the 
outer unite, in the same way as force and its 
object, to form a single whole. Thus the 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 231 

progress of work is at the same time the 
establishment of man in an undivided world: 
it means that the idea of unity has made a 
further advance. 

This consciousness of belonging to a single 
world dominates the convictions of the modern 
man, and gives him an assured sense of life. 
But the greater the pride and joy which are 
manifested in the striving after unity, the 
greater must be the resultant confusion, if, 
in the details of the systematization within 
modern life itself, different, and indeed con- 
trary, life-currents are formed, which that life 
cannot bring together with the means at its 
disposal ; if work, though it strains its powers 
to the utmost, cannot fulfil a requirement 
which is emotionally of the utmost urgency. 
This comes about as follows. The chief in- 
strument for carrying out this effort has been 
found by modern life in science, science of the 
analytical and exact character which has been 
developed precisely in modern times. It was 
of such scientific knowledge that it could first 



232 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

be truly said, knowledge is power. But 
science could not clearly and distinctly grasp 
either psychical life or nature without giving 
them an independence of one another and 
recognizing that each possessed a unique 
nature of its own. This meant a complete 
breach with the former method, which found 
no difficulty in a mingling of both realms. 
Though from the ethical and religious point 
of view the inner was raised above the outer, 
the earlier scientific conception of the soul was 
overladen with many sensuous images. No 
difficulty was felt in representing sensuous 
operations, impressions, influences as entering 
immediately into the soul, nor, on the other 
hand, in representing volitions as extending 
into the outer world and altering its condition. 
In addition, the soul was defined not so much 
by any positive attribute as by its contrast 
with the sensible, and hence it easily came to 
be popularly conceived as something sensible, 
though of a refined and gaseous nature. On 
the other hand, nature seemed to be controlled 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 233 

by psychical forces, guided by ends, moved 
by impulses and inclinations ; it might be 
regarded as forming a living whole and exer- 
cising creative power from within. A con- 
fusion like this, which involved the constant 
interpenetration of the two series, hindered all 
precise explanation, and hence the desire for 
such explanation drove men to separate com- 
pletely one realm from the other, and at 
the same time to demand a psychological 
explanation of everything psychical and a 
physical explanation of everything natural. 
This separation was ably and vigorously 
carried out by the leading spirits of the 
Enlightenment : as they conceived the essen- 
tial characteristic of the soul to be conscious- 
ness and thought, and that of the material 
world to be extension in space, the two were 
regarded as irreconcilably disparate. Here a 
realm of souls with their indivisibility, there a 
realm of infinitely divisible masses with their 
motions. As regards their relations, the two 
realms could no longer be understood as 



234 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

communicating with one another. According 
to the new conception, a stimulus comes from 
one side and releases on the other some sort 
of activity : in its working, however, each 
realm kept to itself and was closed against 
every interference from without. 

But these movements did not by any means 
remain confined to the realm of mere theory : 
they broke forth and became mighty forces 
striving to dominate the whole of life, and 
thus inevitably came into the sharpest col- 
lision with one another. In thought the 
thinking subject begins to feel himself the 
creator of a world. For when thought, as a 
productive faculty, develops an inexhaustible 
diversity out of itself — mathematics affords 
the clearest example — it does not thereby lose 
itself in things ; it preserves an unassailable 
superiority ; from all its work of production 
it always returns again to itself, and thereby 
proves the complete independence of the 
human spirit. Just as the thinking subject 
seems to be the Archimedean point which 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 235 

affords a fixed position in face of the chaos of 
phenomena, the next task is to include the 
whole of reality in the process which so arises. 
Thought now becomes both the motive force 
and the measure of all things : by vigorous 
self-concentration it discovers in itself an 
original endowment of eternal truths, then 
transforms these into postulates, and applies 
them to the existing condition of things. 
What contradicts these truths cannot stand ; 
what corresponds to them will be illuminated 
and raised to a much higher level. An 
activity of this kind not only works on things 
from the outside, but penetrates into them 
and seeks to make out of them something 
quite different from what they appear to our 
immediate impressions. For everything sen- 
sible here becomes a mere appearance, an 
expression and instrument of a content of 
thought : all reality seems to be reduced to 
thought-elements, and we seem to promote its 
ultimate truth when we raise it to the realm 
of thoughts and ideas. On this view the 



236 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

sensible can only be regarded as a residue on 
which the transforming work of thought has 
not yet been fully successful, but it is not 
granted an independent existence as opposed 
to thought. 

The essential attributes of the work of 
thought thus become the ruling characteristics 
of the whole of civilized life. The universal 
and timeless truth ascertained by this work 
possesses an unassailable superiority both over 
what the sensible world exhibits and over 
what has been made of man by particular 
historical experiences. Man's greatness and 
worth do not lie in what he is as a natural 
being, nor in what he is as belonging to a 
particular nation or a particular religion, but 
in what he is as a reasonable being. The 
development of his rational nature produces 
a culture which is rational and universal 
as contrasted with a culture dependent on 
history ; in particular it rejects all sensation- 
alism and becomes an intellectual culture; 
and it shows vigour and tenacity in making 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 237 

its way in all directions. Man now appears 
as, above all, a being whose essence is pure 
thought, as a personality and an individuality, 
and from this point of view he must make 
further claims on himself and on life. Accord- 
ingly an attempt is made, starting from the 
reason immanent in man, to shape the indi- 
vidual departments of life, such as religion and 
morality, politics and education, and these 
thus undergo a complete transformation. 
Finally, all variety tends towards an all- 
embracing realm of thought, and an inner life 
is developed which, with its incessant activity, 
is much better protected against an irruption 
of sensible elements than the more passive and 
emotional inwardness of the middle ages. 
The guidance of this intellectual culture 
belongs incontestably to philosophy. For 
centuries great thinkers have emphatically 
contested the existence of an independent 
sensible world, and have sought to transpose 
the whole of reality into a web of thought. 
This intellectualistic effort found its culminat- 



238 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

ing point in the system of Hegel, which not 
only makes the laws of thought control the 
whole of reality, but makes the movement 
of thought, which advances by means of 
contradictions, its sole content. 

But nature, too, exhibits a life of its own, 
which is no less intense, and which struggles 
for the possession of the world. Just as 
psychical life, after the removal of the tradi- 
tional intermingling of psychical and physical, 
found in thought a world-forming creative 
activity, so, after the expulsion of the 
psychical elements, nature is co-ordinated 
into a stricter unity, and shows that, when it 
is understood in this way, it is capable of 
incomparably greater services. Modern in- 
vestigation, using the exact methods of 
mechanics, probes nature to the smallest 
elements and forces, and thus reveals to us a 
new depth of reality. By the aid of these 
elements it illuminates the existing state of 
things in the most thorough-going manner, 
and not only discovers much more movement 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 239 

in nature, and, by following it up, is able to 
recreate reality, but also finds a way to enlist 
the forces of nature in the service of man, and 
thereby enormously enhance his life. Modern 
natural science is the starting-point of modern 
technical processes, which have not only led 
to an enormous advance in details, but have in 
general put man in a different relation to 
reality. For his ability henceforth to grapple 
boldly with all the irrationality of existence, 
and to treat all limitations as only temporary, 
must give him a proud self-reliance and instil 
an inner joyousness into his life. But while 
the shaping of existence by the technical 
applications of science shows that the outer 
is everywhere capable of a strong influence on 
the inner, and while it is easy for the latter to 
appear as a mere appendage of the former, the 
progress of science produces effects tending in 
the same direction. The latter, especially 
when it assumes the form of a doctrine of 
evolution and makes even organic forms 
subject to change and growth, may look 



240 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

upon all psychical life as a mere product of 
the process of nature, and may regard its task 
as consisting only in what it does for the ad- 
vancement of this natural process. Psychical 
life loses more and more the independence 
which was formerly assigned to it ; even in 
details its activity seems to be determined 
by physical processes. Another factor which 
increases the importance of the visible world 
is the emergence and predominance of 
economic problems in modern society. Not 
only much that was formerly in a state of 
disintegration thus gains coherence for the 
first time and increases its influence, but also 
the particular systematization of modern work 
produces many new problems, and gives them 
a leading position in human life. From this 
point of view the management of life on its 
material side seems to be the main thing in 
human existence, and the struggle connected 
with it is the heart of the work that has been 
done throughout history. The manner in 
which this problem has been solved seems 






THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 241 

to give the different epochs their peculiar 
character. If intellectualism regarded ideas 
as the motive forces of social and historical 
solidarity, the pendulum has now swung to 
the opposite extreme, and the place of ideas 
has been taken by material interests. 

A realistic culture, such as has never existed 
before, arises out of the combination of these 
different movements and their annexation of 
the whole of life. For although the idealistic 
schemes of life never failed to meet with con- 
tradiction and the counteracting influence of 
realistic modes of thought, it was always 
rather a matter confined to individual schemes, 
and did not extend beyond a critical and 
defensive attitude to a positive construction 
dealing with life as a whole. The occurrence 
of this in the modern period alters the situa- 
tion in essential particulars. For now for the 
first time naturalism may hope to satisfy the 
spiritual as well as the material needs of 
humanity, and meet idealism on equal terms. 

The struggle thus enters on a new phase : it 

16 



242 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

goes more than ever from whole to whole, 
and, when clearly realized, is bound to throw 
the whole of life into frightful unrest and 
confusion. Philosophy has again played the 
largest part in raising the matter to the level 
at which it can deal with life as a whole and 
fundamental principles. Only philosophy will 
not now appear as untrammelled thought, 
prescribing to things the course they should 
pursue, but will mould itself upon the data 
of experience with the greatest possible 
fidelity, and will find its chief work in co- 
ordinating, or, to use Comte's expression, 
" systematizing " the co-existences of ex- 
perience. Comte, with his Positivism, may 
in general be regarded as the realistic counter- 
part of Hegel: the opposition, and at the 
same time the close relationship between the 
two tendencies, comes out with particular 
clearness in the life-work of these two men. 

There is no doubt that the elaboration and 
the collision of the two movements takes 
place within the sphere of a common effort. 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 243 

Both in the one and in the other there is a 
struggle to conquer the world, a thirst for 
reality, an increased sense of power, a trans- 
lation of the vital impulse into objective 
work, a denial of all separation between the 
two worlds, a depreciation of the ethical and 
religious inner life of the soul, which had been 
developed in Christianity, but which now 
appears too insipid and feeble. If, now, these 
demands are satisfied in two opposite ways ; 
if, on the one hand, the inner world does not, 
and cannot, tolerate anything outward, nor 
the outer world anything inward, if the crav- 
ing for unity drives each of the life-currents 
to insist on its own exclusiveness, then no 
agreement between them is possible, and 
the movement of modern times is bound to 
be transformed into an incessant struggle : 
this is what has actually occurred. 

At first the intellectual culture had the 
better of the struggle, not only because of 
the greatness of its cosmic philosophy and 
the penetrating power of its work, but also 



244 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

because it seemed more capable of coming to 
an understanding with the traditional forms 
of idealism, and of making use of their forces. 
But while idealism thus found a support in 
history, naturalism was favoured by the 
immediate impressions of the real world. 
These impressions have constantly increased 
in strength, and have tended more and more 
to produce the conviction that the shaping 
of life from within is an audacious and indeed 
unsuccessful venture. But what has been 
most in favour of naturalism is the progressive 
spread of culture : an increasing number of 
men take an interest in, and in fact help 
to decide, ultimate questions, who are little 
affected by history and know hardly anything 
of the experiences which it records, and who 
therefore decide the great problems well or 
ill according to the immediate impressions 
of the present. And who can deny that 
our own age shows no powerful and strongly 
marked movement of an idealistic character ? 
In the older forms of idealism we feel that 






THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 245 

much is obsolete, and yet we are unable to 
draw the boundary line between what is 
obsolete and what is of permanent validity. 
Our age is by no means wanting in idealistic 
movements, but they are not co-ordinated 
into a whole, and therefore cannot inspire 
mankind to enthusiasm and sacrifice. On the 
other side stands naturalism with its rounded- 
off system, its appeal to the senses, its easily 
understood aims : is it to be wondered at if 
the main tendency of the age regards its 
triumph as already settled ? The question 
is whether the judgment of the age has come 
to a decision which is finally valid, and whether 
philosophy can be content to acquiesce in it. 

That philosophy cannot be content to do so 
is sufficiently proved by our survey of history. 
For however large a part of our spiritual 
achievements history showed to be problem- 
atic and transitory, yet it revealed powers and 
depths of life which belong to its essence and 
which may, of course, be denied by human 
opinion and inclination, but cannot be abol- 



246 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

ished. The essential nature which life thus 
revealed gives us something to take hold of, 
and contains demands which must be satisfied 
if life is to attain anything more than a super- 
ficial and momentary satisfaction. Here, 
however, lies the rock on which naturalism 
makes shipwreck, here is the basis for the 
assertion that it will not be able to retain a 
permanent hold on humanity. That naturalism 
is in many respects incomplete, that it sets 
aside many problems as insoluble, cannot in 
the least degree be reckoned to its disadvantage 
or reproach, for this is a defect from which all 
systematizations of life have to suffer. It is 
a greater drawback that its development in- 
volves it in many contradictions, but such 
contradictions may be quietly ignored or 
simply endured. But the fatal thing is that it 
does not meet the claims which life, in accord- 
ance with its nature as unfolded by the move- 
ment of history, is bound to make, and in 
fact puts itself in direct opposition to the 
main tendency of these claims. However 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 247 

much fluctuation, and even at times retro- 
gression, the movement of history may exhibit, 
there can be no doubt that it has elaborated 
inner life to a continually increasing extent as 
opposed to the outer world, and has made this 
inner life continually more independent. A 
kind of reversal has been continually in pro- 
gress by the transference to an ever greater 
extent of the centre of gravity from the outer 
to the inner. Naturalism itself, as a system of 
thought and a totality of life, bears witness to 
this superiority of the inner, for without this 
superiority the diversity of things could never 
have been co-ordinated, worked up, and ex- 
perienced as a whole. But this inwardness, 
which has become independent, now claims 
full employment and satisfaction ; if this claim 
is refused, all the rich diversity of inflowing 
impressions cannot prevent an emptiness, and 
an emptiness which in the end is bound to be 
felt. Naturalism, however, with its building 
up from the outside, offers no shred of sub- 
stitute for this inwardness, but transforms the 



248 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

whole of life into a sum of outward achieve- 
ments. It is thus inevitable that it should be 
opposed by the desire of man for happiness, a 
desire which does not proceed from petty 
selfishness but from the inner necessity of our 
nature, from the craving after some meaning 
in our life and efforts. 

If this destructive action of naturalism is 
not fully realized, it is owing to the fact that 
it usually supplements its deficiencies secretly 
by means of a stock of thoughts which belong 
to the world of idealism. Thus it is accus- 
tomed to hold fast to an ethical estimate of 
action ; in practical life it usually retains 
without hesitation its hold on such things as 
duty and honour, justice and humanity, though 
in the world built by its own conceptions there 
is not the smallest place for them, and though 
from this point of view they must appear no 
less incredible than the crassest legends and 
miracles. But the more the consequences of 
naturalism are developed, the more intolerable 
must it find this dualism, the more inclined 






THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 249 

will it be to reject these supplements as im- 
possible, and the more plainly must its limits 
be seen and likewise its inability to guide life. 
Thus its own outer victory must destroy it 
inwardly : it is wrecked not on its contradiction 
of any traditions and institutions — no system 
of thought need fear such contradiction — but 
on its conflict with the inmost essence of 
human life, which in the end will ever prevail 
in spite of all aberrations of individuals and 
epochs. 

But in a question like this the negation of 
one possibility does not alone involve, as in 
logic or mathematics, the victory of the other, 
but life may quite well remain in suspense 
between the two possibilities. Although we 
may be ever so certain that to transform life 
into mere relations and achievements directed 
towards the outer world is to destroy it spiritu- 
ally, although the inability of naturalism to 
give a meaning and value to our existence 
may be perfectly clear, yet a life in the sense 



250 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

of idealism, an inner world which should co-or- 
dinate our efforts and direct them along one 
main line, is not yet won. We feel, rather, 
that our position is insecure and unsteady as 
soon as we seek a path from the general idea 
to the precise systematization. The work of 
the past, to whose strong influence we are all 
wittingly or unwittingly subject, presents us 
with three different ways of shaping life from 
within : the artistic method of antiquity, the 
ethico-religious method of Christianity, and 
the dynamic-intellectual method of modern 
times. Each of these, in its day, offered itself 
as the only one, or at any rate the supreme 
one. Now we find them all pressing upon us 
at once, while our vision has been made much 
too acute by historical and critical modes of 
thought for us to be blind to their great differ- 
ences and glaring contrasts. But if it is 
impossible simply to combine them, each one 
of them displays truths that must not be lost, 
and thus successfully resists its own absolute 
negation. Indeed, in the midst of their strife, 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 251 

they seem incapable of dispensing with each 
other's help : each contradicts the other and at 
the same time demands it. 

If we abandon the artistic idealism of anti- 
quity, with its power of shaping and ennobling 
life, it will be easy for our life in the midst of 
all its zealous activity to sink into a state of 
formlessness, uncouthness, and barbarism ; so 
we obviously must preserve here a funda- 
mental phenomenon of life. But, at the same 
time, not only the deep obscurity of the world 
and the severe conflicts in human life revealed 
by Christianity, but also the immeasurable 
capacity for increase which the modern period 
has proved to belong to human powers, forbids 
us to recognize as final a scheme of life so cir- 
cumscribed and so instinct with the harmony 
of existence as that presented by the highest 
efforts of Greek creative activity. The depth 
of soul and the inner movement of life, the 
pervading influence of a world-embracing love, 
and the great seriousness attaching to moral 
decisions, which are characteristic features of 



252 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

Christianity, cannot be surrendered or even 
minimized without impoverishing and lower- 
ing the level of life. But at the same time the 
increased psychical activity of the individual, 
as well as the greater breadth and freedom of 
life which we owe to the modern period, not 
only make the historical form of Christianity 
too narrow and too anthropomorphic for us, 
but also give rise to the strongest doubts as to 
the rights of a specifically religious system of 
life, which directs man's thoughts and efforts 
predominantly to an existence yet to come, 
and makes him live more for a better future 
than for the present. The particular character 
of the modern period, with its breadth and 
universality, its rousing work of thought, its 
increase of human capacity, its liberation of 
men's minds, may be ever so highly estimated, 
but we must not overlook the fact that not 
only were these characteristics bound to 
necessitate a constant supplementing of the 
older schemes of life, but also that their own 
development, with its call upon all our powers 






THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 253 

and its awakening of unlimited claims, has 
conjured up enormous complications. In par- 
ticular its intellectualism, for all its restless 
external activity, remains inwardly confined 
within rigid limits. The faith in reason and 
progress, with which the modern period began, 
has more and more faded away under the influ- 
ence of these experiences : it no longer controls 
men's deepest convictions even where it still 
persists as an outw r ard confession. 

Hence at first sight everything is here in a 
confused whirl, conflicting movements inter- 
sect, and fill man with opposite emotions. 
Here he is to think highly, and there lowly, 
of himself ; here with defiant self-assurance he 
is to subject the world to himself, there he is 
humbly to subordinate himself to it ; here his 
activities and aspirations are restlessly directed 
towards externals, there he takes refuge in the 
still depths of his inner consciousness. How 
can a life that is full of so many contradictions 
co-ordinate its activities into one main direc- 
tion, how can it make its assertion of the 



254 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

existence of an independent inner world con- 
vincing, and bring it home to the mind ? As 
the powers of life wear one another down, the 
inner world will more and more fade into a 
realm of shadows, and there will remain only 
an unstable subjectivity which yields to every 
stimulus. Such a subjectivity may be strong 
enough to keep naturalism at a distance ; but 
it is far too weak to unfold a world of its own, 
to bring man to a condition of inner unity 
and mankind to a condition of inner solidarity, 
to combine all the forces of life into one great 
stream and thus give them security. We all 
know how at the present day such a lawless 
and unreal subjectivity comes forward as a 
true inwardness and usurps its rights. 

But how can we escape from this precarious 
and, in the end, intolerable position ? Perhaps 
we shall be led, if not to the goal, at least 
some distance along the road we are seeking, 
by the perception that all the older kinds of 
idealism rest on a presupposition, for which they 
do not seek any further foundation, but which 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 255 

is not so self-evident as it professes to be. 
Everywhere, that is to say, certain develop- 
ments and activities of the spiritual life are in 
question : a moulding activity, or the over- 
coming of an inner contradiction, or the 
increase of power without limit. That spiritual 
life exists is everywhere assumed, and no one 
troubles any more about it. Must not this 
presupposition be transformed into a problem 
by all the confusions and doubts which we 
feel so strongly at the present day ? and, if we 
start with this problem, should not new light 
be cast upon life ? Science has been often 
advanced by the fact that what earlier times 
regarded as settled and self-evident has later 
become transformed into a difficult problem. 
Perhaps it is the same in life ; perhaps if we 
start further back we may have a right to hope 
for a more fertile development in the later 
stages. 

We have dealt at length with the problem 
of spiritual life in various publications, and 
especially in the Grundlinien einer neuen 



256 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

Lebensanschauang, and we must refer to 
these works for all details. But it is clear, 
without going more closely into the question, 
that in spiritual life we have to do, not with 
a mere addition to a life already existent, but 
with an essentially new life. Psychical life, 
which otherwise is merely subservient to, or 
accompanies, the process of nature, gains 
when human life is at its highest — not when 
it only reaches the average — an independence 
and content of its own. It is something so 
new and so peculiar that it can be understood 
only as a new stage of reality, as the emer 
gence of a depth of the world which was 
formerly hidden. For although this new life 
may appear only in the human sphere, its 
claim to form a new domain of existence as 
opposed to nature, and to introduce new 
realities and goods and assert them in opposi 
tion to those which reign in the natural order, 
would be absurd and hopeless from the start 
if it were a life which belonged to mere man 
and were ultimately bound up with the con 






THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 257 

ditions of his existence. Its cosmic ambition 
would be an audacious folly were it not that 
it had a cosmic life behind it by whose power 
it is driven forward. 

That with the upgrowth of spiritual life 
man is raised into a new world and participates 
in the totality of its life, is something of which 
we can gain no assurance by any flight of 
speculation : conviction can come only from 
the fact that a life is developed which accom- 
plishes the deliverance of man from the merely 
human, and, in doing so, by no means falls 
into the void. But such a development does 
appear in point of fact ; indeed, it exhibits itself 
as the height of spiritual work both in the 
macrocosm and in the microcosm. What is 
genuine and essential in religion is not a 
petting and pampering of the mere man with 
his craving for happiness ; it is a removal of 
him into infinity, eternity, perfection ; it is the 
winning of a new, wider, and purer existence 
from a new world. Real morality does not 

consist in man's obeying commandments im- 

17 



258 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

posed upon him and playing the part of the 
honest citizen, but it demands a new world, a 
kingdom of justice and love, a new starting- 
point for life. Real knowledge is not an 
adjustment and accumulation of impressions, 
starting from man and directed towards 
human ends, but it is a penetration into the 
real nature of things and an inner expansion 
through participation in a wider life. Nor is 
that genuine art which ministers to the 
enjoyment or the interests of mere man, but 
only that which brings him into an inner 
relation to his surroundings and at the same 
time makes something different out of him. 

Anyone who takes a general survey of all 
these points will feel no doubt that in the 
human sphere a new kind of reality emerges, 
a movement of the universe is set in motion. 
However far this new element may in appear- 
ance retreat into the background, in it alone 
lies all the meaning and value of human life, 
and so far it has succeeded in making its 
influence sufficiently felt to render impossible 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 259 

a quiet acquiescence in the existing condition 
of things. From the standpoint of the new 
life this condition must appear as a confused 
medley of nature and spirit ; in fact, it will 
seem to be a difficult and intolerable contra- 
diction in that the spiritual, with all the 
superiority of its nature, is accustomed in our 
sphere to play the part of a mere accessory to 
nature, and, so far as it is developed at all, is 
drawn into the service of the merely human. 
In reality, the average culture treats the 
spiritual as a secondary matter and a mere 
means towards human well-being, but in words 
it proclaims that the spiritual is the main 
thing and a complete end in itself. Hence 
this culture acquires a character of incomplete- 
ness and falsity, and it is impossible for it 
to carry the spiritual life beyond individual 
phenomena to a stable and coherent system, 
and from vague outlines to a strongly marked 
form. Life is here wanting in real independ- 
ence, and thus does not get beyond a half-life 
or phantom life. 



260 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

But if a desire for real and genuine life now 

awakens — and the spirituality indwelling in 

man will always impel him in spite of all 

contradiction to seek such a life — it becomes 

clear that a movement in this direction cannot 

come from the chaos we have described, but 

demands an elevation above this, the winning 

of an independent standpoint, the development 

of a spirituality superior to this average routine. 

Only after the movement is firmly established 

can the spirituality which is latent in this 

average be thrown into relief, purified, and 

turned to account for the further development 

of the whole. 

Endeavours of this kind may give rise to an 
idealism which is universal in its nature, because 
it makes it its task to appropriate not this or 
that point in the spiritual, but the spiritual 
itself. But at the same time this idealism, in 
its insistence on the reality of the spiritual 
life and on liberation from the merely human, 
prescribes a specific aim, which is able to 
co-ordinate all the diversity of these endeavours 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 261 

and set them in due proportions. From this 
point of view the whole condition of culture 
will have to be submitted to an examination 
to ascertain how much of it is essentially 
spiritual in its nature and what belongs to 
the bustle of merely human activities. The 
individual systems of life of an idealistic nature 
must be taken up into this movement, into 
this struggle for independence of life and for 
the opening-up of a basal depth of reality. 
This universal idealism has to prove its right 
above all by showing that it is able to appreci- 
ate all these developments of life, to separate 
their permanent content, with its primary 
features, from their historical form, to confirm 
them in their own truth and provide against 
their lapse into the pettily human. 

This system of life, which rests on an 
independent and essential inwardness, has 
above all an ethical character. And this is 
principally because, with this conviction, life 
does not run its course in quiet development, 
but contains in itself the necessity of a con- 



262 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

version from appearance to reality, and there- 
fore of a complete reversal ; and this reversal, 
with its demand for a rise to independence, 
cannot possibly be a mere process occurring in 
man but must be his own act and deliberate 
choice. But at the same time this system 
leaves no doubt that the act we have described 
does not depend on the will and pleasure of the 
mere man, but that the action of each unit 
reaches back into the totality of the w T orld and 
thereby involves a great responsibility. It is 
only a morality on such a basis which will as 
a general rule introduce life to its own height 
and truth ; it will not make it petty and con- 
strained, but greater, freer, and more stable, 
for it is incomparably more than a mere 
regulation of social life, accompanied as this 
latter is by reciprocal pressure and the danger 
of a self-complacent Pharisaism. 

Religion also belongs essentially to the life 
which it is here sought to attain. If the 
independent spiritual life with its essential 
inwardness stands in sharp contrast to the 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 263 

average condition of humanity, and cannot 
possibly spring from this condition, then it 
must be understood and recognized as the 
revelation of a new world. Therefore, all 
work for the inner elevation of man, all 
genuine spiritual culture, contains, although 
in a latent form, and even in direct opposition 
to the consciousness of those concerned, an 
acknowledgment of such a superior world 
and of its living presence in the human sphere. 
But the religious character of life attains a 
clearly elaborated form whenever the constraint 
and the disfigurement, to which spiritual life 
is subject in the human sphere, are clearly 
realized, but at the same time the maintenance 
and further deepening of spiritual life isregarded 
as a fresh manifestation of this superior world. 
A religion which is thus grounded in the 
whole of the spiritual life cannot strengthen 
the merely human element in man, with its 
vulgar greed for happiness ; it cannot drive 
his life into that which is petty and narrow, 
but, rather, with the revelation of infinite life 



264 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

it will free him from all paltry punctiliousness, 
and by giving him a share in the cosmic battle 
will lend him dignity and superiority to the 
world. On this view, too, the divine need not 
come to man from without, since it manifests 
itself sufficiently in the very process of life by 
the opening up of a new depth. At the same 
time thought and feeling will be directed not 
so much towards the Beyond and the future 
as towards a present which transcends time. 
It is then possible to bring a counteracting 
influence to bear with good results upon the 
opposition between, on the one hand, an in- 
wardness that is withdrawn from the world 
and is indifferent or even hostile to sensible 
existence, and, on the other, the defeat of a 
too passively conceived spiritual by a sensible 
that is surreptitiously introduced. 

Further, without the creative activity of art 
there can be no successful construction of an 
independent spiritual world in the human 
sphere, for this construction involves the 
severance of the subject from the confused 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 265 

initial situation and a creative effort in contra- 
distinction to it. Would not a movement of 
this kind fall into the void unless imagination 
went on in advance, giving form to the invis- 
ible and keeping it constantly present with 
insistent, rousing, and stimulating force ? The 
importance of this is most clearly shown by 
the historical religions with their impressive 
pictures of new worlds, their pictures of the 
Kingdom of God and the last judgment, of 
the future heaven and earth, or else of the 
endless succession of worlds — pictures which 
sometimes inspired men with deep longing 
and sometimes filled them with horror and 
dread. But in all the departments of life no 
essential progress is possible unless imagination 
thus opens up the way ; and the life of the 
individual needs it as well, for it is only when 
an ideal picture of itself is constructed and 
kept in mind that this life can enter upon an 
inner movement of ascent, and thereby rise 
superior to the dull routine of every day. 
An activity of an artistic nature is also in- 



K 



266 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

dispensable for the organization of what this 
inner ascent has enabled us to acquire. Such 
an activity alone can extend what has been 
seen on the heights to the whole breadth of 
life, and make what was at the beginning 
distant and strange in the end near and 
familiar. An artistic activity of this kind, 
which is grounded in the connections of 
spiritual reality, cannot be isolated in spite 
of all its independence of other departments 
of life, and cannot lead man on the road to- 
wards a feeble and unnerving aestheticism. 

Science and the civilization based on it 
encompass us so obviously with their beneficial 
influences that no doubts of any kind can be 
admitted as to their significance. But that 
science is indispensable can also be fully 
recognized in connection with the very ques- 
tion of gaining a new coherent system in life, 
a self-centred reality, in opposition both to 
the soullessness of a mechanical nature and to 
the dark confusion of human existence. For 
what force can be found more suitable than 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 267 

this, with its objective necessities, to deliver 
man from the pettily human and to lead the 
struggle against it ; what force more suitable 
to raise life from the contingency of the 
temporary situation to that which is universal 
and above time ; or what force more suitable 
than this, with its constructive use of leading 
thoughts, to develop inner connections of a 
systematic character? The liberating, ele- 
vating, transforming influence of science, its 
capacity for building up a world of thought- 
elements in opposition to that of sense and 
for enforcing objective necessities in opposition 
to the caprice of individuals, has been exhibited 
by the modern period with particular clearness 
and effectiveness. We cannot dispense with 
these services where it is a question of rising 
to self-activity and independence. But at the 
same time we shall be safe from over-estimating 
the value of science if we regard it as a 
member of a wider system within life, if we 
are convinced in particular that it has to gain 
its strongest driving force as also its special 



268 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

differentiations from the whole of life, and 
that, on the other hand, if it is severed from 
life, its fundamental nature renders it very 
liable to be transformed into a tissue of 
abstract formulae. The dangers of an intel- 
lectualistic ordering of life are plainly visible 
to us at the present day, and there is no lack 
of vigorous opposition. But this opposition 
will hardly attain to complete victory without 
a return to the roots of science, and the 
demonstration of its close connection with the 
whole of life. By this close connection it 
may appear to lose, but in reality it gains. 

The different sides of the life which it is 
sought to attain, and the different lines of 
approach to it, are very easily brought into 
isolation, and indeed into conflict with each 
other. Owing to the limitations of human 
nature, individuals and periods, according to 
their special impressions and experiences, may 
give the first place to one or other of these 
aspects, and apply all their powers and 
faculties to further it : thus the ways divide 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 269 

and the violent strife which rages throughout 
history becomes quite comprehensible. This 
strife will Tiardly come to an end ; the task 
of men can only be in some way or other 
to rise superior to it and to counteract the 
threatened disintegration of life. But this is 
impossible until the different movements allow 
themselves to be encompassed by a totality of 
life and take the form of endeavours after one 
and the same goal. For this end, however, 
it is essential that our existing spiritual assets 
should go through a process of sorting and 
sifting, of clarifying and heightening : at 
every point it is necessary to look from the 
standpoint of the whole and to separate the 
spiritual content from its human trimmings. 
But however much toil and labour, strife and 
uncertainty, this involves, the general result 
can only serve to convince us of the reality 
of an inner life and an inner world, of the 
fact that man does grow beyond the stage of 
merely sensuous life. Just as the individual 
becomes certain of an inner task and an 



270 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

independent psychical life principally through 
contradictions in his own nature, which he 
cannot well tolerate, so too for humanity the 
strength and intensity of the struggles to shape 
the content of life are the surest witness that 
it is here in reality a question of seeking and 
winning something, that some important pro- 
cess is going on in us, that it is not a case of 
mere vain pretensions and empty fancies. 
The doubts and struggles themselves make us 
feel with compelling power that we cannot 
give up an inner world, and that it is with 
the shaping of this world that our spiritual 
contest is principally concerned. 

This transference of the inner realities to 
their true place behind the superficialities of 
the merely human is, further, the surest and 
indeed the only means of giving full recogni- 
tion to the element of truth in naturalism 
without accepting its guidance. Many men, 
no doubt, are still extremely reluctant to 
recognize fully the historical development of 
man from animal beginnings, the slow emer- 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 271 

gence of the spiritual in him, the strict sub- 
jection of all life to material conditions. Such 
a close connection of the spiritual with the 
natural is repugnant to them, because they 
believe that the spontaneity and independence 
of the spiritual are thereby endangered. But 
this danger can threaten only so long as the 
fate of the whole spiritual life is held to be 
bound up with human experience. But if 
it is once clearly realized that, however the 
spiritual may have arisen in man, in its world- 
character it cannot possibly have been in the 
last resort produced by him, but that, rather, 
we must recognize in the spiritual the appear- 
ance of a new stage of the world, then all its 
insignificance and subjection in the human 
sphere can in no way imperil its independence. 
On the contrary, this subjection to conditions, 
and indeed this weakness of the spiritual in 
the human sphere, can but strengthen the 
conviction that its roots strike deeper into 
the ground of reality. 

At the same time our action will not be 






272 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

able to treat the sensible and natural side of 
our existence as a secondary matter. Where 
nature ranks as a stage of reality, which 
remains even when the spiritual is developed, 
the power which this stage contains must be 
enlisted in the service of the life-process, in 
order that it may not become too weak. Not 
by withdrawing from nature, but only by 
overcoming, appropriating, and penetrating it 
can the spiritual life attain its full height and 
strength ; only thus can life be brought from 
mere outline to the finished product. That 
which has done idealism, with its defence 
of an independent inner world, more harm 
than any attack from outside is the fact that 
it has often been intent upon offering a 
picture of reality which should be as smooth 
and pleasant as possible, and upon represent- 
ing reason as in immediate control of reality. 
In doing so it became untrue, and lost its 
rousing and deepening force. But if, on the 
contrary, we are certain of an independent 
spiritual life, we can fully recognize the large 



THE OUTER AND THE INNER WORLD 273 

amount of obstinate matter-of-fact and blind 

irrationality in our world without necessarily 

becoming doubtful in any way as to our goals, 

or relaxing our efforts to reach them. For 

then our world signifies only a particular 

kind of being, with which the ultimate decision 

does not lie. 

Anyone who takes all this into consideration 

will feel no doubt that our age has been set 

a great task with reference to this cardinal 

interest of human life. Some inwardness is 

indispensable ; life is in danger of losing its 

equilibrium unless there is a central reality 

and a lofty goal to aid us in our resistance to 

the overwhelming pressure of the external 

world. Tradition with all its fulness does 

not supply this want ; hence it is important 

to gain a new standpoint, to look the problems 

straight in the face, and to venture on ways 

of our own. If the present crisis has been 

occasioned less by the increase in importance 

of the outer world than by the uncertainty 

in which the inner world has become involved, 

18 



274 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

we are impelled to go deeper into ourselves 
and to discover new inner co-ordinations. 
Only in this way can we become equal to 
dealing with the complications, and again 
come to realize the meaning and value of 
our life. But how can we even strive after 
such goals without the help of philosophy? 
It is all the more called upon to exert itself 
here, because the solution of this problem is 
decisive as to its own rights and its own 
development. For to surrender the inde- 
pendence of an inner world is to surrender 
philosophy as well, while the more specific 
nature and relations of the inner world dictate 
to philosophy also the path which it is to 
pursue. 



CHAPTER IV 

The Problem of Truth 

Under human conditions truth and happi- 
ness often seem to be irreconcilably at 
variance. In his striving after truth man 
finds his immediate existence too narrow and 
too petty : he desires to escape from this 
narrowness, and, passing from the subjective 
to the objective, to participate in the life of 
things and the whole of infinity. It seems 
that here the greatest of all deliverances is 
beckoning to him, the deliverance from all 
the troubled passions of self-will and the 
contingency attaching to the particular. A 
purer, nobler, infinite life here emerges, a life 
which even so moderate a thinker as Aristotle 
could declare to be more divine than human. 

275 



276 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

When he is inspired by such high endeavours 
man seems obliged to put his own subjective 
condition entirely in the background, and 
indeed to sacrifice it willingly where the 
service of truth demands such a sacrifice. It 
is quite otherwise with regard to the desire 
for happiness. Here everything which con- 
cerns and affects man, which moves him and 
drives him to action, is brought into relation 
with a central point in which his own life is 
co-ordinated into a whole. All his experience 
is measured and valued in reference to this ; 
from this source love and hate, fire and 
passion, stream out to all infinity. That 
which can accomplish nothing in these direc- 
tions is counted as useless ballast and may 
well be left on one side : whatever, on the 
contrary, is left, must be strengthened from 
this source. Hence in the case of happiness 
the subject takes the first place, in the case of 
truth the object ; there we have a vigorous 
concentration, here an unlimited expansion, 
there an expression, here a repression of vital 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 277 

emotion. From the point of view of the 
desire for happiness the struggle for truth 
may easily appear cold and lifeless, while from 
the point of view of the latter the former may 
appear narrow and selfish. 

It must not be thought that this opposition 
is entirely external to philosophy, which, how- 
ever appealed to, decides the question in 
favour of truth and against happiness, but it 
extends into philosophy and produces two 
fundamentally different types of thought. 
There are two eminent examples which bring 
this contrast before us in a palpable form, 
those of Augustine and Spinoza. A fervent 
desire for happiness impels and animates both 
the striving and the thought of Augustine : 
it is only this desire, only an overpowering " I 
will" that leads him through all doubts and 
makes him equal to dealing with all obstacles. 
That which he apprehends he insists on 
mastering and transmuting into his own life, 
and even in what is apparently most distant 
he sees only the relation to the condition of 



278 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

the subject, and therefore enfolds it with his 
emotions. Hence for him everything falls 
under an alternative, good or evil, day or 
night, salvation or perdition : here all attempt 
at mediation becomes an intolerable weakness. 
Spinoza, on the contrary,, attacks the importa- 
tion of human feelings and passions into the 
universe as a gross misrepresentation, indeed 
a complete falsification. He regards it as 
important to free the ordinary representation 
of the world from them, and to fill our thought 
and life entirely with the content of things. 
Contemplation unmixed with volition and 
desire here becomes the acme of life : it teaches 
us to look at things " under the form of 
eternity/' to fit every unit into all-embracing 
connections, not to weep or laugh at events, 
but to understand them. All true greatness 
here consists not in wishing to be anything 
particular for oneself, but in seeking to be 
entirely absorbed in the infinite : " he who 
truly loves God cannot desire that God should 
love him in return." 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 279 

Who is right, and whose ideal must rank as 
the higher ? For both cannot well be co- 
ordinated without further trouble, considering 
that the directions in which they point are so 
sharply divergent ; hence we cannot avoid 
deciding between them. But at the same 
time it seems impossible to renounce either of 
them entirely ; rather, each apparently re- 
quires to be supplemented to a certain extent 
by the other side, the sharp divergence must 
admit somehow or other of being transformed 
into a convergence. For the truth from 
which we promise ourselves so much, and 
which requires so much work and zeal, must 
surely be somehow linked with our own 
nature, and must in some way or other be 
auxiliary to our self-preservation. Otherwise, 
how could it move and affect us so strongly ? 
On the other hand a happiness which did not 
go beyond the condition of the mere subject, 
which did not in any way widen our sphere of 
life and make more out of us, could hardly 
satisfy a reasonable being ; it would not be 



280 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

worth the trouble which it cost. Thus it 
appears that in the struggle for truth a desire 
for happiness, though diminished in intensity, 
is at work, but that this desire itself cannot 
dispense with that inner purification which the 
struggle for truth promises. Hence we are 
impelled to inquire how far an approach is 
possible, and whether the two aims may not 
be taken as opposite poles of a single life. 
But for this purpose every movement will 
have to be examined for itself. 

The conception of truth is among those 
which at first sight seem simple and indeed 
almost self-evident, but which become com- 
plicated in proportion as it is sought to gain 
a more exact idea of them. When we speak 
of truth in everyday life it is merely a ques- 
tion of comparing an image, an opinion, an 
assertion of ours with the facts of the case to 
which they relate. So far as these facts lie 
within the realm of experience such a com- 
parison gives hardly any trouble ; truth can 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 281 

here be regarded without hesitation as the 
agreement of our ideas with objects (adcequatio 
intellectus et rei). But man is driven beyond 
this conception of truth by his spiritual nature, 
which implants in him a capacity to stand 
outside the connected series of phenomena, 
to reflect on the world and his relation to it. 
He develops a thought-world of his own, 
distinguishes it from the world of things, and 
cannot help asking how the one whole is 
related to the other, and how far, in what 
his thought makes out of things, their own 
being is present. In this connection it seems 
as if man were set a great task, as if it were 
a question of piercing through an initial mist 
and beholding things in their unclouded 
reality. At the same time life seems to rise 
superior to the varying opinions of individuals 
and to attain inner stability. But, however 
great the rewards which await the perform- 
ance of this task, is it not in itself an 
impossible one to fulfil, does it not contain 
a contradiction ? We cannot well keep things 



282 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

at a distance from us and at the same time 
draw them back to us, and the conception of 
truth as a copy of reality, as an agreement of 
our ideas with a world of things that exists 
alongside them, needs only to be more exactly 
thought over to be proved to be untenable. 
For, assuming that man stands alongside 
things, and things make themselves known 
to him, would they not be compelled to 
adapt themselves to his nature and thereby 
become something different from what they 
are in themselves ? The gap, and at the same 
time the impossibility of immediately bridging 
it over, must be all the more strongly felt the 
more independent the inner life is made by 
the progress of culture. But even if things 
could make themselves known to man in their 
true nature, how would it be possible to gain 
any certainty of it, since we cannot transfer 
ourselves to a third standpoint and from there 
compare our representation of things with the 
things themselves ? But if, in spite of the 
obvious impossibility of this solution, a desire 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 283 

for truth persists, if it impels man with over- 
powering force to seek a thought and life 
which proceed from the All, then an essential 
change in our relation to reality will become 
necessary ; such a change alone can give us 
any hope that the apparently impossible may 
yet in some way or other become possible. 
Hence the work of philosophy has been from 
the beginning concerned with the discovery 
and development of a relation which should 
overcome the contradiction : each of the main 
epochs has dealt with this question in its own 
characteristic way, there has been no great 
thinker who has not attempted ways of his 
own in treating of the problem ; in fact, it has 
been at this point more than anywhere else 
that both the possibility of a philosophy and 
its fundamental character have been decided. 
But the efforts which are made at the present 
day are strongly influenced by this past work ; 
hence we shall be compelled to exhibit it in 
its main features in order to take the bearings 
of our own position. 



284 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

In connection with this problem Greek 
antiquity followed its usual course and did 
not break away abruptly from the naive view, 
but developed it and raised it to the spiritual 
level. That a universe is present and encom- 
passes man with its sure operations is uni- 
versally presupposed, and, however much 
opinion may change in other respects, this 
presupposition is not called in question. Hence 
spiritual work finds its main task in developing 
to full clearness the relation of man to the 
world : here the goal of the struggle for truth 
is the philosophical knowledge, the spiritual 
appropriation of the world. The chief epochs 
have endeavoured to effect this purpose in 
different ways, and the course of these 
attempts displays a typical character, so that 
it tends to repeat itself in later times. First 
of all, the predominant thought is that of a 
community of nature between the universe on 
the one hand and man and his thinking on the 
other ; then the two fall apart and the subject 
must concern himself with finding definite 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 285 

marks of truth in himself ; finally, thought is 
assigned the capacity of shaping itself into the 
world and comprehending the opposition of 
subject and object. 

In the classical period of Plato and Aristotle 
the influence is still felt of the personification 
of the environment which belongs to the naive 
way of thinking and which pictures man's 
relation to the world as an intercourse with 
his like. For in spite of the decay of that 
anthropomorphism which treats things as big 
or little men, they retain an inner life and 
capacity for effort, and the same forces which 
move our life seem also to govern the universe. 
They do not seem to be imported by man into 
the universe, but rather to be communicated 
to him from the universe which encompasses 
him. It is only because of this inner affinity, 
or rather relatedness, that man can hope to 
grasp the universe in his thought. The pro- 
cess of knowledge is the bringing into contact 
of two correlatives which are from the begin- 
ning destined for each other, but must come 



286 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

to terms before they can attain complete 
union. This union is attained in intuition, 
which is here closely related to love. It is to 
this stage above all that the words of the poet 

a pp!y : ~ 

" Were not the eye itself a sun, 
No sun for it could ever shine : 
By nothing godlike could the heart be won, 
Were not the heart itself divine." l 

No doubt on this view truth is still an agree- 
ment of the subject with the object, of thought 
with being ; but since philosophical knowledge 
is nothing but the development of the com- 
munity of nature between the spirit and the 
universe, no complication arises from this 
conception. It is not inconsistent with the 
most joyous confidence of ability to grasp the 
complete truth of things, and to participate in 
the true life of the universe. Men may hope 
to appropriate the whole depth of things since 
no cleft has yet opened between the activity 
and the being of things, but, rather, their 

1 Goethe, Zahrne Xenien : cf. Plotinus, Enneads, i. 6. 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 287 

whole being is present in their activity. On 
this conception thought is clearly enough 
separated from all merely sensuous perception, 
but it takes up into itself a certain objectivity, 
a plastic form, and thus acquires a certain 
affinity to such perception. Scientific work is 
itself a kind of artistic moulding, an appropria- 
tion and inner revivifying of things, a co- 
ordination in thought of the manifold into a 
unity, a transformation of the chaos of sensuous 
impressions into a well-ordered cosmos : it is 
at the same time a joyous raising of the whole 
of human nature to a higher level. 

Just as in the case of Plato all this stands 
in immediate connection with the whole of 
the personality, so here the artistic and plastic 
character of thought is still more strongly 
marked. When scientific investigation be- 
comes independent in the hands of Aristotle 
this artistic character tends to fade out of 
sight, but it by no means entirely disappears. 
There remains a close connection of human 
life with the universe, and unwearying 



288 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

efforts are directed towards transforming the 
world into a web of inner unities, ends, and 
forces, and thereby bringing it closer to the 
spirit of man and making it transparent to 
his intellect. Innumerable threads are spun 
between man and his environment, in fact a 
vigorous articulation, a systematic organiza- 
tion of the whole of reality is attained. But as 
the system settled down into greater clearness 
there is no longer any possibility of concealing 
that anthropomorphism which the whole, with 
all its greatness of achievement, involved. It 
was bound to seem especially dangerous just 
because it was hidden, and men could not 
permanently fail to notice that a great deal 
of what was here offered as explanation was 
nothing more than an image and similitude. 
At the same time the whole was bound to 
be rejected because felt as an intolerable 
mingling of fact and image, as well as 
a transference to objects of what is merely 
subjective. This in particular was the case 
at the beginning of the modern period with 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 289 

Scholasticism, and all the more because the 
latter held fast to the forms of Aristotle with- 
out being able to retain his spirit and the 
inner connections of his thought. But already 
in antiquity the increasing severance of man 
from the world drove the struggle for truth 
beyond the classical solution and compelled 
it to seek new paths. 

One of these new paths was attempted by 
the Stoa. Even the Stoics do not doubt that 
the world exists and that man belongs to it, 
but for them the close connection between 
the two has been loosened. They make the 
subject their starting-point and thence seek 
to gain enlightenment as to what may be 
regarded as real and true. Much zeal is ex- 
pended in ascertaining definite marks which 
teach men to distinguish genuine knowledge 
of things from mere imagination. Investiga- 
tion does not here so much enter into the 
life and activity of things as sketch certain 
fundamental features of the whole and make 

men believe in them. At the same time the 

19 



290 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

close alliance between philosophy and the in- 
dividual sciences, which distinguishes the work 
of Aristotle, comes to an end, and the different 
sciences go their own ways. But to make up 
for this, life in the human sphere is investi- 
gated more closely and made deeper; in 
particular, it is when his ethical task is clearly 
thrown into relief that man believes he is 
winning an inner connection with reality and 
an assured truth. The truth that appears in 
this ethical sphere is confirmed by importing 
the whole personality into it : the maintenance 
of knowledge becomes itself a valiant action. 
But the attempt to reconcile this knowledge 
completely with the whole of the universe 
does not succeed : the world which stands 
alongside man is predominantly of a physical 
and logical character ; if a doubt should arise 
the sphere of ethical life may easily be isolated 
and appear uncertain : but this also shakes 
man's faith in truth. The problems and con- 
tradictions which are involved in the Stoic 
doctrine have been very clearly emphasized 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 291 

by Scepticism, whose achievements have been 
far too little appreciated by the moderns. 
When the Sceptics saw that there was a rigid 
division between subject and object, doubt 
was bound to extend further and further 
until every avenue to truth seemed barred to 
man. 

But the modern period was not the first 
to oppose this division ; the Greek world had 
already done so, principally in the cosmic 
speculation of Plotinus. It is here held as a 
truth beyond doubt that a knowledge of 
things existing outside thought is an absolute 
contradiction ; and thus, if all knowledge 
which deserves the name of knowledge is 
not to disappear, things must be compelled to 
take their place within the world of thought. 
But this cannot be done unless thought makes 
itself the object of knowledge and thereby 
overcomes the division, in the sense that know- 
ledge is nothing but a self-cognition of thought. 
Then investigation had only to bring into 
emphatic prominence this activity of thought 



292 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

and to express in terms of it all the data of 
experience. Plotinus having set about doing 
this with vigorous boldness and on the grand 
scale, discovered in thought the essential inde- 
pendence of life and made this into the soul 
of all reality. There is here unfolded a vision 
of things from within outwards, from the 
whole to the part ; all reality is set in flux, its 
different realms become stages in an all-em- 
bracing movement. Since it is an essential 
unity which underlies all diversity, the appre- 
hension of unity is the principal task of know- 
ledge, unity is what it strives to see before all 
else at every step. In this connection the 
thought of infinity arises, a thought which 
embraces all oppositions and indeed reduces 
them to harmony. Thus the world is co- 
ordinated in a magnificent way and filled with 
inner life ; the dependence of one thing on 
another, the permeating stream of life, the 
necessity and importance of the thought of 
unity, are enforced with peculiar power. But 
this is accomplished by sacrificing all the vivid- 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 293 

ness of the concrete and the particular, by 
transforming reality into a realm of logical 
relations, which would have constituted a 
tissue of mere forms and formulae were it not 
that a strong impulse of an emotional nature 
had given the whole a deeply religious tone 
and thus infused life into it. But when this 
tendency prevails, knowledge, just when it 
reaches its greatest height, must exchange its 
character of scientific insight for that of 
obscure feeling, of a freely ranging emotional 
mood, Although it may still retain some 
truth, this species of knowledge has given up 
the attempt to ascertain the detailed content 
of the world and has renounced the form of 
science. 

We thus find a wealth of movement even 
within antiquity, and we recognize that it is a 
gross error to extend the particular character- 
istics of the classical period to the whole of 
antiquity. But still throughout all its phases 
it did retain one common feature, viz., that 
belief in the world's existence was not shaken. 



294 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

and the relation of man to it was regarded as 
the main problem ; it was in close connection 
with this that thought maintained its position 
as the guide of life. When Christianity made 
the heart and core of life to consist in the 
relationship to God, and indeed to a God who 
is not so much indwelling in the world as 
superior to it, this was bound to produce 
essential changes both in the aim and in the 
character of the struggle for truth. The 
main concern of knowledge was now to work 
out the relations between God and man ; but 
this was a question on which the work of 
science, and indeed the human faculties at 
large, were unable to give definite informa- 
tion: for this purpose it needed a communi- 
cation on the part of the deity, a divine 
revelation, "about God it is possible to learn 
only from God " ( Athenagoras). From man, 
however, a docile acceptance of this revelation, 
an unconditional faith, is demanded : hence 
faith and not knowledge is regarded as the 
way to the truth that decides the salvation 






THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 295 



of man. Faith is represented as having the 
advantage over knowledge not only in its 
greater certainty but also in its greater 
intelligibility ; even the simplest working-man 
may have his share in faith while those who 
attain to knowledge are never very many. 
The truth, however, which is attained by this 
path has for its content great world-events 
of a moral nature ; in particular, everything 
centres round the problem of man's revolt 
and deliverance, everything else becomes a 
mere setting; according to Augustine it is 
only of God and the soul that it is necessary 
to know anything. While the sphere of 
human thought is thus confined within the 
narrowest limits, there arises at the same time 
a far-reaching change in the general outlook 
on reality, since the totality of the world is 
now regarded as resting upon a free personal 
Being, and as being governed by ethical tasks. 
Hence man with his ethical strivings may 
know himself to be bound up with the deepest 
foundations of reality ; he stands at the centre 



296 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

of the world and may be absolutely convinced 
of the truth of the content of faith. Indeed, 
for the participators in this ethico-religious 
movement the whole world is opened up. 
Things seem to express their deepest being in 
what they accomplish for the ethico-religious 
task. Where they cannot work directly in its 
service, they do so in image and similitude, 
and thus even the figures and processes of 
nature become symbols of what is contained 
in sacred history. 

But the conception of faith, which is here 
the foundation of all certainty, contains diffi- 
culties which first give rise to many com- 
plications within the sphere of Christian 
thought, and finally even threaten to convulse 
it. It cannot well be denied that there is a 
department of knowledge additional to that 
of faith ; then the question becomes, how are 
the two related to one another? It is a 
question which can receive, and has received, 
different answers. In particular there comes 
into view a pervading opposition between a 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 297 

universalistic and a positivistic mode of 
thought : the one seeks to bring faith and 
knowledge into friendly alliance, the other to 
keep them as sharply apart as possible. Ac- 
cording to which conception is adopted, each 
of the two departments will take on a different 
form. One means of seeking a combination 
of the two is to maintain that knowledge is 
a preparation for, and a lower stage in, what 
comes to its highest perfection in faith. But, 
in spite of this subordination, owing to its 
close connection with divine truth know- 
ledge is directed towards essential problems ; 
it acquires a speculative character. But the 
content of faith, however superior it may be, 
is seized upon, worked over, and illuminated 
by thought ; faith appears as another and 
higher kind of knowledge, which is only 
possible by communication from God, but it 
still remains a kind of knowledge. It is this 
mode of thought which finally gained the 
ascendancy in the Roman Catholic Church, in 
which at the present day it retains an unas- 



298 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

sailable supremacy. In the middle ages, 
however, it had to wage a hard struggle with 
the other type, which has predominantly 
gained the adherence of ecclesiastical Pro- 
testantism. To the latter type the above- 
described mode of reconciliation seems to 
endanger the characteristic nature of faith, 
the specific character of the facts, and the 
immediateness of the conviction. For the 
preservation of these it seems that the sharpest 
possible separation is necessary, an " either 
.... or " takes the place of the " both .... 
and." Faith thus loses its intermixture with 
speculation : but the less it is regarded as 
capable of proof, the more it becomes a matter 
of free decision ; it is regarded as an act of 
the will and is declared to be a " practical 
attitude" (habitus practicus). The facts on 
which it is based present themselves as pre- 
eminently historical in character and insist 
on being received as such. Knowledge, how- 
ever, is kept at a distance from these funda- 
mental questions so far as possible, and is 






THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 299 



directed towards the world of nature ; it 
becomes thereby much more closely con- 
nected and concerned with experience. This 
opposition between a universalistic and a 
positivistic, an intellectualistic and a volun- 
taristic, mode of thought, divides men to the 
present day, and we do not see how it can be 
resolved within this range of ideas. Its 
deepest root lies in the fact that Christianity 
insists at the same time on being an historical 
fact and on having a universal validity ; and 
according as one or other of these claims 
comes into prominence, the mode of thought 
will assume this or that form. 

Still more difficult than this problem of the 
relation between faith and knowledge is the 
complication in the conception of faith itself. 
From the beginning faith strove to be some- 
thing more than knowledge — a claim which it 
could justify only if it proved that it sprang 
from a greater depth of the soul ; it carried 
out, or at any rate attempted to carry out, 
this justification by putting itself forward as 



300 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

a manifestation and expression of the whole 
nature, as a purely inward matter entirely 
dependent on free decision. But the willing- 
ness to receive a divinely revealed truth, and 
the resolution not to be led astray from alle- 
giance to it by any misgivings of reason, have 
a necessary presupposition ; the divine origin 
of the doctrine in question must be exempt 
from all doubt, infallible testimony must 
assure us of it. But only science can examine 
whether such testimony is really available, and 
hence it seems that an act of knowledge must 
precede faith. The misgiving which results 
from this would be more easily removed if it 
were a question of something which arose in 
the life of the individual and could prove itself 
immediately by its elevating influence : but it 
is here a question of facts in the history of the 
world, which lie beyond the life of the indi- 
vidual and have first to be imparted to him. 
How can faith in such facts prove that it has 
an unassailable right ? Roman Catholicism 
has supposed this difficulty overcome by its 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 301 

assertion that the Church has a teaching office 
entrusted to it by God ; but this assertion has 
first to be proved, and the study of history 
shows that there are very weighty objections 
to it. In any case the decision of the question 
lies with science ; and this shows that the 
foundation of faith is dependent on the very 
thing above which it strove to raise man. At 
the average level of life faith is thus nothing 
more than a docile acceptance of what the 
Church brings forward as truth, which is here 
guaranteed by tradition and authority. If, in 
opposition to this, Protestantism represented 
faith as arising immediately in the individual, 
the presupposition was that the facts which 
form its basis are accessible to every individual 
and must be immediately self-evident to him. 
We cannot doubt to-day that the matter is by 
no means so simple. According to the form 
which the question has recently taken, it is 
sought to attain certainty of faith principally 
by a combination of psychical experiences and 
historical facts ; psychology and history are to 



302 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

work together towards the same goal. But 
each of these has had its credibility seriously 
shaken by modern investigation ; and the 
combination of two uncertain quantities can 
never by any possibility produce a certainty. 
Thus at the present day faith, which was to 
relieve man of all doubts, has itself become an 
object of doubt ; its power of conviction is 
limited to a sphere within which man feels 
himself encompassed by a clearly defined 
religious world, certain and self-evident, which 
makes both the existence and the proximity of 
the Deity as obvious to him as his own exist- 
ence. If this world falls into discredit, indeed 
if it loses in any degree the naive certainty 
which it possessed for the men of the middle 
ages, faith ceases to be a sure foundation for 
truth and itself becomes a difficult problem. 

The more the modern period has developed 
an independent character the more has the 
specifically religious conduct of life retreated 
into the background and had its presupposi- 
tions shaken. The first result is a great 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 303 

uncertainty as regards the problem of truth. 
Christianity has torn man away from the 
coherences of the world which encompassed 
him in antiquity, and the increased independ- 
ence of the soul forbids a simple return. But 
he is no longer certain even of the Deity ; in 
any case his relation to the Deity no longer 
controls the whole of life. In this situation 
where can he now turn to find truth, and 
what meaning can this conception still retain ? 
In accordance with the experiences which we 
have described man can seek truth nowhere 
else but in himself; his own life must possess 
a depth which even for himself at first lies in 
a dim and distant background ; with the full 
appropriation of this depth, however, he may 
hope to discover a world in himself, or rather 
he may himself grow into a world. The 
object then to be aimed at is a transference of 
life, not into something which exists outside 
us or above us, but into something which 
belongs to us, but which can become com- 
pletely our own life only by a vigorous trans- 



304 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

formation, and indeed revolution. Reality is 
not here found already existing, but it has to 
be built up from within: truth is thus a 
striving of life towards itself, a seeking for 
its own being. Hence it cannot be the agree- 
ment with a given reality: it becomes an 
agreement with itself, a self-co-ordination of 
a life which becomes independent and raises 
itself to a higher level, instead of remaining 
disintegrated and constrained. Its verification 
can only lie in the fact that, by embracing it, 
the whole of existence is transformed into 
spontaneous life, raised to an essentially higher 
level, and at the same time united into a whole 
of c*fe4fcive effort which moulds reality. 

Here the main problem is to find the point 
where a spontaneous and creative life springs 
up in man as the deepest thing in his own 
nature. According to the form which this 
life takes, different forms will be assumed by 
reality and truth ; but that such a life is 
attainable in some way or other is the common 
presupposition of that faith in reason which 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 305 

pervades the creative efforts of the modern 
period and is enunciated with particular clear- 
ness in the works of its leading thinkers. The 
reason which is immanent in the human race 
must now take the place of the universe and 
the Deity. This, too, is common to all 
attempts, viz., that the movement does not 
proceed from a pre-existing world towards 
man, but from man towards a world which 
has first to be constructed. This movement 
draws everything into itself which at the 
beginning lies outside it ; it tolerates nothing 
which does not conform to the necessities 
indwelling in it ; everything previously existing 
must fit in with and accommodate elf to 
these necessities, or it can no longer maintain 
its position. It is evident how great a change 
comes over human activity as compared with 
the older way, how much it gains in independ- 
ence, how much more active and productive 
it becomes, but at the same time how much 
more restless and critical. In moulding the 
world it will insist on developing things from 



306 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

their first beginnings and at the same time on 
gaining control over them : this it is which 
principally determines the character of modern 
science, and it is also the impelling force to- 
wards a complete renewal of human existence. 
The question as to where such a life 
emerges in man is now closely connected 
with the attempt, which has been previously 
discussed, to find in thought the persistent 
power that is able to hold together existence, 
which otherwise strives to diverge, and to gain 
>a spiritual mastery over it. The predominant 
tendency is first of all to declare that thought 
is that spontaneous creative effort which raises 
man by himself above the pettily human and 
leads him to truth by enabling him to parti- 
cipate in the life of the world. It was thought 
in particular which, throughout the centuries, 
undertook and carried through the working 
out of objective necessities and wide com- 
plexes in opposition to the narrowness and 
constraint of the pettily human. In this 
movement it raised itself more and more 






THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 307 

freely above the immediate existence of man, 
co-ordinated itself more firmly on its own 
basis, and took up into itself to a continually 
increasing extent whatever confronted it as 
an independent world. In this advance of 
thought three chief stages can be dis- 
tinguished ; the Enlightenment (Descartes, 
Spinoza, and Leibniz), the critical philosophy 
(Kant), and constructive speculation (Fichte, 
Schelling, and Hegel). 

When the Enlightenment took the thinking 
subject as the starting-point of the struggle 
for truth, it would have gained very little by 
doing so if it had not discovered in this 
subject a definite content and a moving force. 
It found these in the " innate ideas," the 
I eternal truths," which seemed to form an 
absolutely certain original endowment of the 
human spirit. When these truths unfold 
themselves, seize upon the surrounding world 
and shape it conformably to their own 
demands, a realm of reason arises and vouch- 
safes man an apparently universally valid and 



308 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

unassailable truth. But neither the repre- 
sentation of nature nor the sphere of man 
can reach the state of truth except by toil- 
some labour of an intellectual nature. The 
object to be aimed at is a thorough purgation 
and sifting, which must get rid of everything 
that refuses to be illuminated by thought, 
while everything that stands the test is more 
effectively revivified, and more firmly co- 
ordinated. This gives rise to natural science, 
with the exactitude of its mathematical 
methods, and also to a culture based on 
reason, which makes a problem out of every- 
thing handed down by historical tradition, 
and lets nothing pass which cannot clearly 
and distinctly prove its rights at the bar of 
reason. This attempt, however, derives its 
self-confidence and its power chiefly from the 
conviction that reason is not a matter of 
mere man, but controls the universe ; hence 
what man recognizes as truth can have a 
limitless validity beyond him ; he himself, 
however, gains a high life-task and a com- 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 309 

pletely satisfying happiness by participating 
in this universally valid truth and in the 
building up of a kingdom of reason. Thus 
Leibniz is of opinion that the whole earth 
" cannot serve our true perfection unless it 
gives us opportunity of finding eternal and 
universal truths, which must be valid in all 
worlds, indeed in all periods, and, in a word, 
with God Himself, from whom they continually 
proceed." Both with Leibniz and in the 
Enlightenment generally, faith in the posses- 
sion of universally valid truth rests on the 
conviction that the human reason is grounded 
in a divine world-encompassing reason. It 
was sought first of all to find a basis for 
this conviction in close connection with the 
traditional transcendent conception of God ; 
faith in the veracity of God may then 
enable us to trust our own reason with 
complete confidence if it conscientiously ob- 
serves the rules prescribed to it. Spinoza, 
however, with his philosophy of immanence, 
goes so far as to conceive that a cosmic 



810 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

thought is immediately present in us, that it 
is not so much we who think as it which 
thinks in us ; the only important point, there- 
fore, is to make sure of such a cosmic thought, 
and we can do so, according to Spinoza, if we 
free our intellectual work from the influence 
of human conditions and aims, and allow it 
to be determined purely by the inner neces- 
sities of thought itself. For what makes the 
usual representation of the world inadequate 
and erroneous is that man is treated as the 
centre and goal of all reality, that in par- 
ticular the oppositions which belong merely 
to human modes of feeling, such as the anti- 
thesis of good and bad, beautiful and ugly, 
etc., are imported into the universe, and have 
grossly distorted its image. The first condi- 
tion of truth is, therefore, a modest self- 
repression on the part of man, a willing 
submission to the necessities of things as 
thought reveals them ; man must remove the 
centre of gravity of his own being from the 
confused whirl of the passions into a passion- 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 311 

less thought, into a contemplation of things 
which is unmixed with volition and desire. 
Pure thought of this nature can place man 
in the stream of a cosmic life, deliver him 
from everything that is pettily human, and by 
the opening up of an eternal and infinite life, 
vouchsafe him complete rest and blessedness. 

But, however high may be the position 
which Spinoza thus assigns to thought, and 
however strongly he represents it as self- 
moving and progressing in accordance with 
its own necessities, he does not deprive it of 
all relation to objects existing outside itself; 
he holds fast to the position that, while 
thought unfolds its own nature and necessi- 
ties, it corresponds at the same time to a 
being which exists alongside it ; in place of 
agreement we have here a parallelism of 
thought and being, and it seems thus to 
become possible that one and the same funda- 
mental process of the universe should embrace 
both series and come to expression in them. 
But, on this solution, not only is the above 



SI 2 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

presupposition of an all-embracing world-basis 
open to attack, but also the relation between 
the two series leads to the gravest complica- 
tion. It must at once arouse misgivings that 
Spinoza nowhere puts the two series on the 
same level but always subordinates one to the 
other ; either thought becomes a mere mirror- 
ing of nature, whose laws thus widen till they 
become laws of the universe, or thought forms 
the core of reality and nature is nothing more 
than its manifestation and environment. But 
doubt cannot be suppressed on the further 
question as to whether, if the two sides are 
incommensurable, the idea of a parallelism is 
not an absolutely unthinkable thought, whether 
it is not essentially self-contradictory. But 
whatever doubts of this description may arise, 
they cannot obscure the greatness and inevit- 
ability of Spinoza's endeavour to discover a 
cosmic nature in man himself, to distinguish 
in him the merely human from the cosmic ; 
at least we do not see how the modern man 
could find his way to truth by any other path. 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 313 

But was Spinoza right in placing this cosmic 
nature solely and entirely in intellectual 
activity, and in imagining that every other 
kind of life ought necessarily to be degraded 
to a lower stage ? In this way he reached 
only a reality of logical forms and formulae, 
whose emptiness and soullessness must have 
been immediately evident, were it not that a 
mystic and religious intuition, entirely different 
in its nature, had infused life and warmth into 
the whole. In spite of the vigorous energy of 
his thought in certain directions, there is no 
other philosopher who, in the fundamental 
texture of his system, is so compound of 
contradictions as the thinker who is praised 
by many as the supreme example of the quest 
for unity. 

The struggle for truth reaches a new stage 
with Kant. He is the first to recognize clearly 
that truth, in the sense of the agreement of 
thought with an existence external to it, is an 
absolute absurdity. But since at the same 
time the existence of some truth or other is 



SI 4 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

insisted upon with the utmost vigour, the 
conception of truth must undergo essential 
modifications ; in reality a complete revolution 
is brought about in the relation between 
thought and being. It is now taught, not that 
thought has to conform to being but that 
being has to conform to thought, that is, we are 
acquainted with reality only so far as things 
enter into the forms of our intellectual organ- 
ization ; truth thus ceases to be for us the 
knowledge of things, and becomes the self- 
knowledge of the human spirit, which prepares 
for itself a world of its own — acting, it must 
be admitted, on an impulse independent of 
itself. This self-knowledge, however, surpasses 
everything which earlier epochs possessed of a 
like kind, and gains an incomparably richer 
content through the coming to light of an 
inner structure, a comprehensive web of spirit- 
ual life, in the course of that construction of a 
world. In the gaining of this knowledge 
there arises a new kind of investigation, the 
transcendental, which is concerned with the 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 315 

inner possibility of knowledge, as opposed to 
the empirico-psychological method, which 
treats of its origin and growth in the indi- 
vidual man. Our view of reality is thereby 
fundamentally transformed, for henceforth all 
the coherence which it presents, in particular 
all the assertions which it includes about 
ultimate grounds, have to be regarded not as 
belonging to reality itself but as imported into 
it by man. Thus man in his struggle for 
truth does not transcend himself, he does not 
reach in knowledge a point where a universal 
life springs up in him, but remains always 
confined to his own circle of thought, the 
contents of which cannot be universally valid, 
since they have arisen under special conditions 
and have not proceeded from an original 
creation. For Kant regards it as beyond 
question that human thought is non-creative. 

But if the Kantian movement from the 
object to the subject thus puts human know- 
ledge on a much lower level and threatens to 
make truth merely relative, it brings us into 



316 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

an incomparably happier position in the domain 
of the practical reason, in morality. For here, 
according to Kant, the subject can rise to 
creative activity, eliminate everything specifi- 
cally human, and thereby press forward to an 
absolute truth. Hence the thinker has no 
doubt that the ultimate meaning of the world 
is moral, and that man, by participation in it, 
attains a universally valid truth, a superhuman 
life, and at the same time an incomparable 
greatness and dignity. He reaches these 
heights, indeed, only in this special direction, 
and not so much by scientific knowledge as 
by an inner appropriation which is of the nature 
of faith, and which cannot be forced on anyone, 
but requires a free recognition, an inward 
up-striving of life. Hence this philosophy 
does not by any means fail to transform pre- 
existing reality and to grasp a cosmic nature 
in man, and thus possesses a metaphysics, but 
of a kind completely different from all earlier 
systems. 

The Kantian philosophy forms the beginning 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 317 

of a new epoch in the struggle for truth both 
in negation and in affirmation. The impossi- 
bility of the old conception of truth is clearly 
and cogently demonstrated, and at the same 
time the philosophical is finally distinguished 
from the naive treatment of the problem. All 
immediate connection of thought with things 
disappears, and there is a simultaneous dis- 
appearance of the capacity of thought to reveal 
to man by freely ranging speculation a realm 
of universally valid truth ; at the same time 
the view of the world is freed from the deeply 
rooted confusion of subjective and objective 
which had hitherto prevailed. But if man 
thus loses the connection with a surrounding 
world, he gains in exchange a new world in 
his own being, and the very limitation of 
knowledge seems to make it possible, this 
ethical turn having been given to philosophy, 
to put the struggle for truth on a new basis, 
which is simpler, surer, and more fruitful than 
any of its earlier forms. The struggle for truth 
is here thoroughly purged from all mere intel- 



318 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

lectualism, and indeed the conception of truth 
is itself deepened. 

But the obstinate strife over the interpreta- 
tion of Kant soon proved that these changes 
did not provide any final solution but gave 
rise to new problems; this is also proved by 
the fact that the movement of philosophy so 
quickly went beyond Kant. Can the subject 
be raised, as is here the case, so as to become a 
texture of inner life, and yet at the same time 
be bound in knowledge to an unfathomable 
world ? Is it possible to lift the special 
domain of morality above the rest of life to 
a condition of complete independence, creative 
activity, and absolute truth ? Will not this 
new life either draw the other up to itself or 
else sink down to the level of the rest, with its 
subjection and its merely human character? 
Will the cleavage between the theoretical and 
the practical reason, with the conflicting emo- 
tions to which it exposes man, be permanently 
endurable ? So much is certain ; from the 
standpoint of history it is clear that Kant did 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 319 

not provide a final solution, which brought 
peace and union, but that he gave rise to a 
powerful movement and an enormous amount 
of contention. 

We know that it was in the first place the 
craving for a more effective unity in the world 
of thought which drove effort into new 
channels. Thought, which with Kant was so 
sharply separated from the world, now be- 
comes the workshop in which the whole of 
reality is created ; it is vigorously thrown into 
relief against merely human conditions, and 
thus grows to be a world-process which drives 
forward all being by its own movement, 
fashions all that is apparently alien to it into 
its own possession, and proves its rights not 
by any sort of external verification but by its 
inner mastery of the whole. This movement 
which commences in Fichte with directive 
force and fervid zeal, reaches its consumma- 
tion and its ripest development in Hegel. 
Thought is here raised entirely above the 
mere subject, it has for its vehicle the work 



320 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

of society throughout history, which work is 
itself thereby co-ordinated and spiritualized. 
The motive power of the process is contained 
in the fact that thought produces contradic- 
tions out of itself and overcomes them, and 
that it is thereby driven further and further 
until it has finally assimilated the whole range 
of existence and at the same time admitted it 
to its own truth. Since man can identify 
himself completely with this movement, this 
self-unfolding of spiritual life, if he vigorously 
rejects all his narrow opinions and self-willed 
striving, he seems here to participate in the 
full and complete truth : nowhere else in the 
whole course of history do we meet with so 
joyous and proud a feeling of the possession 
of truth. Our world of thought, however, 
undergoes a radical change of condition when 
it is attempted to carry out this undertaking, 
in such wise that all the diversity of things is 
united to form a single structure, everything 
which is apparently isolated is brought into 
relation with everything else, everything that 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 321 

is at rest is set in active motion, all mere 
matter-of-fact is illuminated by logic and 
rationalized. 

This achievement as a whole has resulted 
in a vast increase of spiritual capacity, which 
cannot simply disappear. But as a definitive 
solution of the problem of truth it was bound 
before long to meet with opposition. It in- 
volved the assumption that the spiritual life 
of humanity is spiritual life pure and simple, 
absolute spiritual life, and it thus exaggerated 
human capacity in a way that became intoler- 
able, especially to the nineteenth century, 
with its growing recognition of the subjection 
of man to wider systems. Further, it could 
not accomplish this transformation of reality 
into a process of thought without either trans- 
forming it into a realm of mere shadows and 
categories, or else essentially supplementing 
it from a richer world of thought and so 
leaving the path upon which it had entered. 
We know how suddenly the whole structure 

collapsed, and this precisely because the pro- 

21 



822 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

cess of thought was unable to maintain its 
superiority over the subject, because the 
subject violently appropriated the increased 
mobility of thought, and consequently gave 
rise to an unlimited subjectivism, which 
contains no trace of any higher truth common 
to all men. 

Thus with regard to the problem of truth 
we now find ourselves in an extremely un- 
certain and confused position. The movement 
of history has made an irreparable breach 
with the naive conception of truth : it has 
raised claims to which our capacities do not 
seem equal, but which we cannot renounce. 
It is true that the modern period shows no 
lack of attempts to minimize these claims and 
to find some sort of truth without metaphysics. 
Thus Positivism transforms knowledge into a 
mere determination and description of the 
relations of things, which in their own nature 
are absolutely inaccessible to us ; thus 
Pragmatism transforms knowledge into a 
mere means and instrument of human well- 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 323 

being. But we are impelled beyond such 
limitations not merely by the persistence of 
theory, which seeks to invent some "meta- 
physics " or other for any given existence, 
but also by the irresistible power of man's 
innate spirituality. That we are not a mere 
constituent in a web of relations of things 
is sufficiently proved by the very fact that 
we are able to consider our relationship to 
our environment, apprehend it as a whole, 
and recognize the relations as relations. But 
as soon as we convince ourselves that behind 
the sphere of our knowledge there still lies 
an unattainable world, we cannot help feeling 
that what we have attained is unsatisfying as 
belonging to the mere surface of things. And 
what would be fairly tolerable as a limitation 
of thought becomes absolutely unendurable 
as an ultimate limitation of life. For here, 
where it is a question of arousing and co- 
ordinating all our powers, it is impossible to 
renounce ultimate goals, and therefore the 
consciousness that, with all our toil and labour, 



324 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

we can never penetrate beyond the surface of 
things to their fundamental nature, is bound 
to produce an unspeakable emptiness in which 
no nature of any force can finally acquiesce. 
Was it by chance that Comte himself in the 
end set to work with heart and soul to create 
new ideals ? Was it by chance that both 
Mill and Spencer, at the end of their laborious 
days, felt painfully the limitations of the solu- 
tion which they had offered, that thus all the 
leaders of Positivism were impelled by their 
own natures to transcend their own philosophy ? 
Man may treat nature as something external, 
although this too has its limits, but he cannot 
permanently maintain this attitude towards 
other men, and especially towards himself. 
But this does away with Positivism, which 
knows only external relations. 

But as regards Pragmatism, which ought 
to have more attention paid to it in Germany, 
let us accord full recognition to its efforts to 
deliver the problem of truth from its customary 
isolation and to bring it into closer connection 






THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 

with the whole of life. It is only such a con- 
nection which will give truth a firm founda- 
tion and enable it to assume a fruitful form. 
But the question is, what is understood by 
this whole of life ? If it means nothing more 
than the complex of actual society, as it dis- 
plays itself in the wide field of experience, 
the struggle for truth would be subject to all 
the dissipation and collision of forces, the 
selfish striving after happiness of the mere 
man, the spiritual sluggishness of mere average 
humanity, and thus truth would be sacrificed 
to utility, de-spiritualized, and thereby de- 
stroyed. But after all the movements and 
experiences of world-history we cannot help 
feeling keenly so unfortunate a result: we 
have grown beyond both mere nature and 
merely social existence, we cannot help 
measuring this existence by the necessities of 
our spiritual life, we cannot turn round and 
make the latter depend on the former. The 
average condition must be very highly idealized 
if it is to be accommodated to the endeavour 



326 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

after truth without serious harm. Or else we 
must recognize another life besides that of 
the social sphere. But where this assumption 
is made explicitly and worked out consistently, 
a fundamental transformation of the earlier 
situation becomes necessary ; men resume the 
quest for a metaphysical system, and once 
more the struggle for truth, in the old sense 
of the deliverance of man from the merely 
human and the winning of a new and more 
essential life, must come into prominence. 
Thus we find ourselves in the end agreeing 
with Hegel that a highly educated people 
without a metaphysics resembles a temple 
without a holy of holies. Only let us not 
understand by metaphysics something gratui- 
tously added by thought to a rounded-off 
world, but something which, by a vigorous 
reversal of existence, forms the very first step 
to a stable and essential reality. 

Hence a final renunciation of metaphysics 
is impossible without producing such a marked 
degradation of life as to be intolerable ; we 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 327 

shall have to resume the struggle for truth in 
this higher sense of the word. However 
certain it is that we cannot do so simply by 
returning to the achievements of an earlier 
period, yet the experience of history shows us 
the direction in which we have to seek our 
goal. And this experience leaves us in no 
doubt that, when we take up the struggle, we 
cannot start from the world nor from a tran- 
scendent Deity, but only from the process of 
human life. And it is just as certain that the 
struggle cannot start from the immediate con- 
dition of psychical life, as empirical psychology 
determines it, but that it requires a reversal, 
a transference to a spontaneous, self-active, 
creative life. It is only thus that man can 
participate in a cosmic life that forms the 
essence of things, and so gain possession of 
truth. 

Such a reversal has been undertaken with 
great energy by the leaders of modern phil- 
osophy : the form taken by the attempt was 
that a special kind of activity was exalted 



THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

above all the rest, and a new life of an inde- 
pendent character developed from it. Some 
demanded for this purpose a knowledge rooted 
in itself, others a creative moral activity. But 
we have seen what complications resulted from 
this limitation to a special faculty. This sub- 
ordination not only drives life into a channel 
that is too narrow for it, but such a faculty 
does not seem to be in a position to produce a 
new reality from itself, and at the same time 
to effect a reversal of previous existence. 
Besides, a shaping process of which the trans- 
forming power does not extend over the whole 
range of life will hardly acquire the stability 
and certainty which are necessary for this 
movement ; in that case doubts and contradic- 
tions will continually arise from other sides of 
life. Consequently the next requirement will 
be that this reversal should extend over the 
whole of life, that in particular it should rise 
superior to the intolerable cleavage into a 
theoretical and a practical reason. Life must 
get behind this cleavage, it must be possible 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 329 

to reach beyond the individual faculties a total 
activity, which by its own movement develops 
into an independent reality and at the same 
time comprehends the opposition of subject 
and object, subjectivity and objectivity. But 
this is much what we have in mind in the con- 
ception of spiritual life. It is not that a 
primary thought or even a creative moral 
activity operates in us, but that a new totality 
of life, a self-existent and self-sufficing being, 
a primary creative power which fashions the 
world and expresses itself in complete acts, 
makes its presence felt in us — this is the 
cardinal principle on the attainment and vivid 
realization of which all truth of thought and 
life depends for us. Hence it is not a question 
of the appropriation and strengthening of par- 
ticular sides, but of making independent and 
co-ordinating all the inner life that is active in 
us, and thus reaching a new starting-point for 
the whole of life. 

This new life has to confirm its truth by an 
enhancement of the whole range of our exist- 



330 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

ence. It will be seen that it is only from this 
standpoint that the contents and values un- 
folded by our life can be understood, and, 
further, that the latter is raised to an infinitely 
higher level when it is summoned to independ- 
ence and co-ordinated into a self-existing and 
self-sufficing world. Just as the new life, as 
the totality of a new being, is raised still 
further above the mere man and the immediate 
situation, so also it will make greater demands 
than the older kinds of reform ; in face of 
the given condition of things it demands at 
each separate point a disturbance and trans- 
formation of old conditions ; everywhere the 
object to be aimed at is to work out an 
independent spirituality, to oppose it in the 
first place to the average life, and then to 
refer it back to this life. The whole of 
existence is thereby transformed into a general 
problem which can be solved only very 
gradually. For this independent spirituality 
cannot be suddenly transformed into reality 
by a bold fiat, but the work and experience of 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 331 

world-history are necessary for this purpose ; 
it is only by convulsions and negations that it 
is possible to compel life to open up its depths. 
But since in the end the truth of thought 
depends on the essential content of life, 
thought must get rid of the idea that at a 
given moment it can reach conclusions which 
are final for all periods. Though it must 
necessarily insist on a truth which transcends 
time and possesses absolute stability, the 
stability of this truth does not lie in man but 
in the spiritual life, and if man, as grounded 
in the spiritual life, must in some way or other 
participate in this truth, to work it out to a 
self-active possession is a high goal to which 
we can only slowly approach. If truth, if a 
life which fashions the world and partakes of 
the essence of things, are not in the first place 
incontestable facts for us, then all our trouble 
about them is wasted ; but that they likewise 
form difficult problems which are continually 
recurring, is shown with peculiar force by the 
struggles and confusions of the present. It 



832 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

is an urgent necessity for our spiritual self- 
preservation that life should be deepened and 
renewed ; but this cannot be accomplished 
without a bold advance, a successful search 
for new connections, a further development of 
our world of thought. Can we expect to 
advance in these endeavours without the help 
of philosophy ? Is it not an indispensable ally 
in the struggle for a richer content of life and 
more truth of conviction ? And does not the 
idea of an independent spiritual life open up 
new outlooks and tasks, the possibility of a 
revolution ? Humanity has indeed not yet 
exhausted the possibilities of life. 

If the struggle for truth thus rests on the 
craving after a life which partakes of the 
essence of things, it cannot possibly divest 
itself of all strong emotions and become an 
affair of quiet contemplation and selfless 
resignation. For the above conception shows 
clearly that its motive force lies in the impulse 
towards spiritual self-preservation : without 
the elemental force of this impulse it would 



. 



THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH 333 



never succeed in overcoming the pressure of 
the actual world and in building up a new 
world of self-activity in opposition to it. Re- 
signation is justified only so far as this spiritual 
self-preservation requires much negation and 
renunciation just because it is fundamentally 
different from self-preservation on the natural 
level. This negation, however, must be the 
reverse side of an affirmation if it is not to 
remain lifeless and unfruitful. It would be 
easy to show that even in Spinoza's philosophy 
there is no lack of positive and joyous vital 
emotion in the depths of existence. But if 
this is so, then the irreconcilable hostility 
between truth and happiness disappears, the 
struggle for truth will help to purify and * 
ennoble the desire for happiness and will not 
tend to suppress it ; it will be able to aid the 
latter in overcoming the complications to 
which it gives rise. 



CHAPTER V 

The Problem of Happiness 

Our age has particularly urgent cause to 
occupy itself with the problem of happiness, 
for we are confronted by a remarkable con- 
trast between the greatness of the outward 
achievements of the age and the insecurity of 
its sense of happiness. In successful devotion 
to the work of civilization we surpass all other 
periods ; how far are we in advance of them in 
the knowledge of nature, in the mastery and 
utilization of its forces, in the humane ordering 
of society ! But it cannot be denied that all 
these achievements do not help us to attain 
a joyous and assured sense of life, that a 
pessimistic tone has become very widespread 
and continually extends further. How is it 

334 



I 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 335 



that with us work and happiness refuse to 
associate ? 

When such a dislocation compels us to con- 
sider the nature and conditions of happiness, 
we immediately encounter a grave misgiving. 
May man as a general rule make happiness the 
goal of his efforts, is it not a sign of a narrow 
and petty character that in every effort man 
should think principally of what gain he is to 
receive in happiness ? Experience, too, seems 
to show plainly that not only individual men 
but whole nations and religions have been able 
to renounce happiness : we know, further, that 
thinkers of the very first rank have called for 
something higher than the struggle for happi- 
ness. But if we look more closely we find 
that their opposition has been directed not so 
much against happiness as against lower con- 
ceptions of happiness : even in the substitutes 
which have been offered in its place a craving 
after happiness can always finally be recognized. 
Men have wanted something different from 
the majority, but they have always opposed to 



336 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

the existing condition of life another which 
was higher and better, and have sought to 
enlist human feelings and faculties in the task 
of attaining it : but is this not a craving after 
happiness ? Thus even the Indian sage strives 
for happiness when he tries as far as possible 
to negate life, to bring it into a condition of 
absolute repose and indeed indifference. For 
then absorption in the universe or even com- 
plete annihilation appears to him a better state 
than his previous life with its labours and cares, 
its excitements and disappointments. And 
the struggle for happiness need by no means 
remain bound to the narrowness and poverty 
of the natural ego, but rather the very aim of 
the struggle may be to find a new, purer, 
nobler being, a life which is freed from this 
ego and yet remains active and vigorous. 
Thus we see that the conception of happiness 
is itself by no means simple, and that the 
opposition does not apply to happiness so much 
as to lower and inadequate conceptions of 
happiness. Indeed, it is a thing to be insisted 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 337 

upon that man should let the thought of 
happiness control his efforts, for it is only by 
doing so that he can put all the vigour of his 
life and the strength of his emotions into his 
action : he cannot devote all his energy to the 
struggle after anything in which he does not 
expect to find satisfaction for his own nature. 
Fundamentally different conceptions are in- 
cluded in the term happiness, but it is only 
dulness of thought which can agree to a general 
renunciation of happiness : all real life is 
strictly individual life, and to this happiness is 
indispensable. 

But this survey has already shown that 
happiness is not something simple, that the 
understanding of it is only to be reached by 
labour and struggle. This lends value to a 
survey of world -history in the present con- 
nection. Let us then make a hasty journey 
through the ages keeping this problem in 
view, not in order to consider the whole 
array of individual solutions but only to 

show the leading types which human life 

22 



338 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

has elaborated, and which cannot cease to 
occupy us. 

We begin once more with the highest 
achievements of ancient culture. Here the 
answer to the inquiry after happiness rests on 
a peculiar attitude towards life and the world 
which pervades the whole course of Hellenism. 
Effort is supported by the conviction that the 
joy of life lies principally in activity, that it is 
therefore the chief object of endeavour to enter 
upon a state of activity, to assume an active 
and not a passive attitude towards things. In 
the course of Greek development, activity, on 
the high level of the spiritual life, has continu- 
ally retreated further and further from contact 
with the immediate environment, and has 
taken refuge in the inner nature of man, and 
indeed finally in the relation to a being superior 
to the world ; but yet faith in activity and joy 
in activity have always remained. In the 
struggle which Plotinus finally waged against 
Christianity it was a leading consideration that 
this religion makes man hope and wait too 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 339 

much for help from an outside source, while 
the good cannot gain the victory unless every 
individual himself takes up arms and fights. 
On the Greek view, activity needs no reward 
in order to gain the allegiance of man ; it is 
its own joy and reward : as Aristotle says, all 
life possesses a "natural sweetness." 

But now the question arises, in what, then, 
does the activity consist which is able to 
control and fill life ? With regard to this 
question thinkers were naturally bound to 
go their own ways. They seek what leads to 
the highest form of activity in that which 
distinguishes man from other beings, and 
exalts him above them : this is reason, which 
is here defined more exactly as thought. In 
virtue of his thought man can overcome the 
distraction of sensible impressions and the 
transience of external stimulations ; he can 
grasp permanent values and aims ; in fact, he 
can leave behind him the whole domain of 
civil life with all its petty interests, and in the 
contemplation of the universe, with its eternal 



340 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

order* and wonderful beauty, he can attain a 
true and lasting happiness. He can return 
hence to man and his soul, and here also strive 
to attain a condition essentially higher than 
the average. 

To this effort Plato was the first to give an 
individual character and a vigorous elabora- 
tion. His conception of happiness involves 
an energetic negation and rejection of the 
usual human existence : all the happiness 
which is there offered and commended seems 
to him fleeting, external, and illusory. But 
science reveals to the thinker the possi- 
bility of contemplating an eternal order of 
things which, in accordance with his character- 
istic tendency towards grandeur and vividness 
of conception, becomes co-ordinated into a 
whole, the world of ideas. This ideal world, 
with all its superiority, is not intrinsically 
alien to us, but he who strives with all his 
might to attain it can gain complete possession 
of it and make it his own life and being. In 
this appropriation of a real and perfect world 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 341 

the thinker finds a happiness which is beyond 
comparison with anything else that life offers. 
But even the individual life of man takes 
another course when a higher world is thus 
revealed to him : it is in particular the com- 
bination of scientific thought with the forma- 
tive activity of art which everywhere reveals 
great tasks and leads to genuine happiness. 
The work of science is to destroy all mere 
appearance and everywhere to throw into relief 
something essential : it also frees its disciple 
from all external dependence and places him 
entirely on his own basis. Art as formative 
effort, however, finds a high goal set before it 
by the fact that human life contains a wealth 
of potentialities and powers which must some- 
how be reconciled with one another. No one 
of all these different potentialities ought to be 
rejected or stunted, but all ought to be associ- 
ated in carrying out their common task in 
such a way that higher and lower are clearly 
separated, the former gaining a secure ascend- 
ancy while the latter willingly subordinates 



342 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

itself. When this is successfully accomplished, 
when all the diversity of things is clearly 
marked off and graded, human life in itself is 
fashioned into a perfect work of art. It is the 
vigorous realization of this work of art, the 
self-contemplation of man, from which true 
happiness proceeds. In the possession of such 
happiness, which is grounded in his own nature, 
man may feel himself superior to all fate, for 
this inner harmony cannot be destroyed or 
even diminished by anything that comes 
from outside. Thus Plato sketches that 
magnificent picture of the suffering just man, 
who is misjudged and persecuted even unto 
death, but who through all the attacks upon 
him actually gains in inward happiness. On 
this view, further, action needs no external 
reward, for this contemplation of inner harmony 
contains complete happiness in itself. The 
only presupposition is that the inner condition, 
while differentiating itself into harmony and 
disharmony, should enter into feeling and life 
in its pure and undisguised character, that the 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 343 

reflection in our consciousness should be 
absolutely faithful. The chief distinction of 
this doctrine of happiness lies in' the fact that 
it brings the internal disposition and its mani- 
festation, the good and the beautiful, into the 
closest connection, but represents the whole as 
finding its joy and motive force immediately 
in itself. Here all petty calculation of private 
advantage, all thoughts of reward and punish- 
ment, have sunk out of sight. 

Aristotle shares this conviction in all essential 
particulars, but he puts a peculiar complexion 
on it by another mode of marking it off from 
the ordinary conceptions of happiness. The 
usual struggle for happiness is, according to 
him, only a pursuit of external goods ; the 
devotion of all one's life and efforts to this 
pursuit involves an inner contradiction, and 
indeed the deep degradation of man. For 
these external goods are after all only means 
to life ; an endeavour which is directed towards 
them never reaches rest and satisfaction ; it is 
driven onwards to infinity and yet always 



344 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

remains dependent on external things ; with 
its pursuit of outward results it robs man of 
all inward independence. True satisfaction 
can come only from an activity which finds 
its task in itself and does not strive after any- 
thing beyond itself. Such an activity is 
reached when all powers unite and acquire a 
great depth of purpose under the guidance of 
reason, when a strong and earnest man con- 
sciously expresses himself and his character in 
his actions. But as the feeling of happiness 
generally corresponds to the content of life, 
man will gain all the greater happiness the 
more successful he is in filling his life with 
significance : there is no full happiness without 
greatness of soul. Joy in activity, however, 
will on its side contribute towards raising 
activity to a higher level, and thus life itself 
will be enhanced by happiness. In this con- 
nection Aristotle has weighed and measured 
with circumspection and sureness of touch the 
relation of human action to Fate. The activity 
which decides our happiness undoubtedly 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 345 

postulates the fulfilment of many conditions 
and the co-operation of many auxiliaries ; a 
maimed and crippled man cannot exercise any 
full activity, and, generally, we must to a 
certain extent be favoured by circumstances 
if we are to unfold what is latent in us. But 
however strongly Aristotle recognizes this, 
he does not believe that man becomes on this 
account a plaything of Fate. For the main 
thing in all activity is always the inner power 
and capacity. Though for its consummation 
it may need to be brought on the stage of life, 
even without this it is as little lost as the 
dramatic poet's work of art which is never 
acted. Spiritual power is equal to dealing 
with the average amount of suffering and con- 
straint which life presents. Excessive afflictions 
may of course destroy the happiness of life, 
but in any case they are of rare occurrence, and 
even they are unable to make a noble man 
really miserable : for his beauty of character 
shines through all unhappiness. 

Thus the great classical thinkers have 



346 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

sketched an ideal of happiness which has 
always claimed the attention of humanity as 
the type of a vigorous, joyous, and noble 
scheme of life. But the further movement of 
history soon made it evident that the ideal 
rests upon definite presuppositions and does 
not overcome certain limitations. It demands 
a pre-eminent power of spiritual creation ; it 
assumes not only that the soul is directed 
towards the good but also that the spiritual 
faculty is a match for every obstacle ; it needs, 
further, the conviction that man can grasp the 
complete truth with his thought and make it 
the setting of his life. But the beginning of 
Hellenism involved a great revolution which 
modified the relation of man to reality. With 
the traditional order of life shaken to its 
foundation, it became the supreme necessity to 
win for him an inner self-sufficiency, a com- 
plete independence of and superiority over 
everything which lies without him. But this 
can only be accomplished if his interest is 
dissociated from externals, if his relation to 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 347 

all experiences of external happiness or un- 
happiness ceases to be that of feeling or 
suffering and becomes one of complete indiffer- 
ence, so that he takes refuge entirely in his 
thought, in the realization of a cosmic reason 
and the consciousness of an inner greatness. 
A man who thus gains by thought a living 
realization of the totality of the universe can- 
not be moved or agitated by anything which 
happens in the world of experience ; even if 
this w r orld were shattered he would not be 
dismayed. The development of this spiritual 
superiority has greatly strengthened the inner 
life and has led man deeper into his own soul : 
it has supported him in troubled times by 
rousing the heroic elements in his character, 
but the many problems which as a whole it 
contains cannot well remain hidden. The 
fundamental thought which here forms the 
basis of life is more of a negative than of an 
affirmative nature ; it exalts character above 
the world, but it does not lead to the permea- 
tion and moulding of the latter ; hence, how- 



348 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

ever powerful may be the stimulus, it is easy 
for a feeling of emptiness to arise. Further, 
this ideal of life needs great and powerful 
souls, it requires heroic energy to maintain 
the fundamental conviction when the whole 
environment contradicts it. Hence, as soon 
as doubts about the spiritual power of man 
arose and spread, faith in this ideal was bound 
to wane. 

Doubts of this kind, moreover, continually 
gained ground as the ancient world ran its 
course : man continually developed a deeper 
sense of the obscurity of the world, and felt 
himself continually less equal to dealing with 
its sharp oppositions. In particular, it was 
the opposition between spirituality and sensu- 
ousness which occupied and agitated men's 
minds to an ever-increasing extent. The old 
harmony between the spiritual and the sensible 
was replaced by its opposite as spiritual power 
became deadened and the life of the senses 
more refined ; in the end, this was intensified 
to an antipathy against all sensuousness and 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 349 

a passionate longing somehow to gain de- 
liverance from it and to participate in a purer 
life. But man felt himself much too weak to 
bring about this change from his own re- 
sources : thus a longing arose for supernatural 
help, and the Deity was invoked to raise man 
to a higher life. These changes destroy the 
old rest and security ; life is tossed hither and 
thither between conflicting moods ; longings, 
hopes, and dreams take the place of a secure 
possession ; the fixed forms are dissolved and 
a journey begins towards the distant, the 
formless, the unlimited. The whole is thrown 
into enormous agitation by the fact that 
human existence is thought to be encompassed 
by influences proceeding not merely from good 
but also from evil spirits, destroying demons, 
and that thus a consciousness of responsi- 
bility, indeed a torturing fear of eternal punish- 
ment, makes itself felt. In such a situation 
deliverance and happiness can be hoped for 
only from the assistance of a supramundane 
Deity ; such a Deity must come to the rescue 



350 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

in a miraculous manner and give man a share 
in his perfection. In order to reach this it 
is necessary for man to come out of himself, 
and a condition of ecstasy becomes the highest 
level of life. As regards the sensuous, however, 
the object to be aimed at is the highest 
possible degree of renunciation, a strict 
asceticism. In the whole scheme the position 
of humanity is wrapped in deep gloom, but 
it is precisely from this sense of darkness that 
there proceeds the strongest impulse towards 
liberation from all misery, towards the attain- 
ment of full and vigorous happiness. In the 
wide field of existence this endeavour gives 
rise to a remarkable situation, in which the 
most various elements, higher and lower, 
superstition and the scientific impulse, greed 
for happiness and willingness for self-sacrifice, 
meet in a confused medley. It needs a great 
personality to wrest from this chaos a pure 
ideal of life and happiness : such a personality 
appeared in Plotinus. 

In the change of direction which was due 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 351 

to Plotinus the essential point is that here 
religion is no longer, as it had been to the 
average man, a mere means to subjective 
happiness, but that it promises to make some- 
thing essentially new out of man and to get 
rid of all the pettiness of a separate existence. 
What is new is that the whole universe 
appears as a single life, which always remains 
self-contained even when it unfolds into multi- 
plicity, and that at the same time it seems 
possible by means of thought to transport 
oneself into this unity of the All and thence 
to regulate the whole of one's life. The 
winning of such an inner unity with the All 
promises an incomparably higher life and 
incomparably higher happiness. For union 
with the ultimate basis of the All enables man 
to gain the whole of infinity and eternity for 
his own possession, and to comprehend all 
oppositions. At the same time he attains 
thereby a purely inward life, since here all the 
value of action lies in its relation to this 
cosmic unity ; all external achievements, on 



352 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

the other hand, become completely indifferent. 
A further result is complete independence of 
fate, since all experiences of joy and suffering 
fail to reach this height of life. It is true 
that such a life involves a constant movement 
in virtue of its relation to eternal being, but 
in contrast to the rush and bustle of the world 
it appears as perfect rest, as profound peace. 
Participation in such an inner life, which rises 
superior to the world, must further the es- 
sential development of psychic life. As this 
primary unity lies above all special differentia- 
tion, man cannot attain to it unless he is 
able to rise above all diversity of psychical 
activities and co-ordinate himself into a unity 
superior to all differentiation. The pursuit 
of this path leads to the development of a life 
purely of the soul and feeling, a freely soaring 
disposition, untrammelled by material ties. 
Life seems here lightened of all weight and en- 
tirely transported into the pure ether of infinity. 
Hence it may well be conceived that in the 
development of such a life Plotinus experi- 






THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 853 



ences a rapturous bliss, and that this bliss 

carries him far above every other happiness 

which life can offer. It is equally intelligible 

that he does not believe in the possibility of 

winning and forcing this life by personal toil 

and labour, but that he regards any beginning 

on the part of man as necessarily preceded by 

a revelation of the absolute life, which has to 

be quietly waited for. " Men must remain 

in quietude until it appears, and must look 

for it as the eye awaits the rising of the sun." 

Thus Plotinus by this appropriation of a 

universal life carries out a transference both 

of being and of happiness into the purely 

inward life : it is here first clearly seen what 

power the thought of union with the All is 

able to gain over the human soul. But it 

cannot be denied that there is no path leading 

from this inwardness back to the wide field of 

life ; the spiritual rapture cannot transform 

itself into fruitful work and permeate the 

whole of life. Hence in the end there remains 

a cleavage between the height of the inner 

23 



354 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

life and the rest of existence ; there are only 
particular moments when the thought of the 
All takes complete possession of man, fills 
him with ecstatic rapture, and enables him 
both to participate in a bliss beyond descrip- 
tion and to forget everything else. 

The further limitations in the work of 
Plotinus we can best estimate if we keep in 
mind his connection with the whole ancient 
world. For although with him philosophy 
takes a turn towards religion and pure inward- 
ness, he does not forsake the connections of 
ancient life. This life regards man and all 
his efforts as an item in a given world which 
is complete in itself and rounded off:- the 
cardinal task for man is to master this world 
and find his place in it. Thought, which 
connects him with the All, thus becomes the 
guiding force in spiritual life ; but just as this 
thought arises in the soul of every individual, 
it is likewise the concern of every individual to 
carve his own way to happiness. Man is not 
dependent on others, neither does he work for 






THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 355 

others ; there is here no inner solidarity between 
men, no assimilation of another or of the 
whole into one's own inner being ; the destiny 
of mankind is not lived out at each individual 
point, nor is any activity entered upon for the 
elevation of the general condition, but as the 
individual here stands entirely on his own 
basis, so he lives only for himself and even in 
his happiness is inwardly lonely ; there is here 
no inner world encompassing men and form- 
ing a bond of union between them. Hence it is 
not to be wondered at if the great differences 
between individuals, which human life un- 
deniably shows, are accepted as final and com- 
pletely control the system of values. An 
aristocracy of the spirit is sharply distinguished 
from the rest of humanity : it alone, with its 
spiritual power and greatness of character, has 
any share in true happiness ; such happiness is 
refused to the others, and this refusal causes 
no pain to those on the higher level. The 
rigidity and hardness of the whole also be- 
comes apparent in its estimate and treatment 



356 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

of pain. Greek thinkers have by no means 
treated pain lightly, as seems to have been 
thought in former times, but they have dis- 
played the greatest reluctance to admit it 
among the fundamental constituents of life. 
As thought was here concerned as a general 
rule to prove that the world, in spite of all 
the pain obviously existing in it, is a kingdom 
of reason, so the highest task in life seemed 
to be to prohibit all approach of pain to one- 
self, to put on against it armour of proof 
through which it cannot possibly pierce. 
Thus immense complication was bound to 
arise when, after all, the sense of pain grew 
continually stronger and refused to be treated 
as a mere appearance, or to be kept at a wide 
distance from the inmost part of life. That 
joyous doctrine was then in some risk of being 
transformed into its exact opposite. The 
Greek ideal of happiness, with all its serious- 
ness, is not on the whole free from an 
audacious optimism. To find perfect happi- 
ness in activity is something not to be hoped 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 357 

for apart from the conviction that such activity 
has been from the first exerted within the 
sphere of truth, and that, provided all powers 
be strained to the utmost, it reaches its goal 
with absolute certainty. Thus, as a matter of 
fact, the opinion of the ancient world is that 
a well-directed and vigorous struggle for truth 
must undoubtedly reach truth, and that all 
spiritual power is certainly working towards 
the good. There are as yet no shattering 
doubts and inner dissensions in the spiritual 
life itself, or, where they appear, they are 
thrust into the background and attention is 
averted from them. The struggle for truth 
of the old thinkers presupposes the rationality 
of the universe : they neither appreciate ^the 
irrationality of human existence at its full 
value nor fight against it with all their powers. 
It is this irrationality of existence which 
affords the starting-point for the Christian 
pursuit of happiness ; it is here for the first 
time that it gains full recognition. For it is 
not this or that item in the world which here 



858 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

seems wrong, but the whole condition is full 
of confusion and disorder ; the perversion, 
however, reaches its highest point in the 
ethical alienation of man from God, and it is 
here that the transformation too must begin. 
But where the mischief goes right down to 
the root, and where a renewal of the whole 
of existence is requisite, the new departure 
cannot proceed from the private resources of 
man but only from divine love and grace ; 
it is the fundamental conviction of Christianity, 
however, that such a love has really been 
made manifest and that it promises deliverance 
to every individual. As all evil arose out of 
the separation from God, so the highest good 
can consist in nothing else but re-union with 
God : but this affords a bliss incomparably 
superior to every other form of happiness. 
For here man obtains a share in the whole 
wealth of divine life ; here he is entirely trans- 
ported into a kingdom of love, of childlike 
trust, of saving grace. Moreover his soul 
acquires a peculiar state of tension, since the 






THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 359 

initial situation, above which he is raised, does 
not simply disappear but persists within the 
new life, which thus runs its course amid sharp 
contrasts. An undertone of pain accompanies 
the bliss, and may even seem to be enhanced 
by the presence of the higher elements ; but, 
on the other hand, happiness gains by the 
contrast both in intimacy and stability. Placed 
amid such contrasts the soul remains in con- 
stant inner movement : happiness cannot here 
be thought of as a possession acquired once 
for all, and the condition of man as a state 
of perfection, but it is only an inner superiority 
to the whole realm of conflict which is offered, 
and it is in the inmost ground of his being 
that man is absorbed into divine life. The 
point of superiority of this new life and the 
corresponding happiness over everything which 
could be attained in Hellenism, even by the 
path of religion, is that here a true inner 
world arises. What makes this possible is 
that here the divine is not conceived in the 
first place as the unchangeable unity, the 



360 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

essential being, but as the ideal of personality, 
as moral perfection, as almighty love. The 
relation to such a Being may rise to the 
highest power and warmth, the inwardness 
of thought may be heightened to the intimacy 
of the full personality : man in general, and 
each man in particular, may know that he is 
supported and guarded by eternal love. In 
this realm all differences of spiritual capacity 
disappear and everything depends on the force 
and faithfulness of the character, on the ethical 
direction of the nature, which everyone is able 
to display. 

The particular character of the whole is 
especially prominent in the treatment of pain, 
which is in flat contradiction to the Greek 
method. Here, where man cannot find his 
way to the heights until his nature has 
undergone a mighty convulsion, and where 
the most difficult problems concern the soul 
itself, it is impossible to follow the Greek 
thinkers in expelling pain and keeping it 
wholly at a distance from the inner life. 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 361 

On the contrary, pain here becomes indis- 
pensable for the deepening of life and as a 
preparation for the good : indeed, the assertion 
is actually made that in pain itself there is a 
blessedness, so that those who suffer pain are 
praised as blessed. In this connection those 
who take an external view might think chiefly 
of the joy of a future life, to which pain 
forms a mere passage, but the more spiritually 
minded have sought to show that the trans- 
formation of soul which proceeds from 
suffering contains in itself a deepening and 
strengthening of life. According to Gregory 
of Nyssa a good becomes manifest in pain 
itself; the absence of the good could not 
move us to such strong and passionate grief 
if it were not something pertaining to our 
being ; hence it is precisely distress of such 
a kind which gives us assurance of a depth 
of our nature. In pursuance of this line of 
thought a special unhappiness may be ascribed 
to the man who now feels himself happy, for 
it is just this which circumscribes his life and 



362 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

prevents it from reaching further depths. In 
the same way the strong feeling of the im- 
measurable pain of existence is for Augustine 
a sure sign that the present is not the final 
and complete existence, that, rather, we 
belong in the ultimate basis of our being to 
another and higher world. In a similar way 
from the agitating and shattering power of 
doubt he infers that truth does subsist and 
has a close connection with our being ; non- 
possession accompanied by a painful feeling 
of want everywhere attests for him the im- 
possibility of renunciation, the active operation 
of a higher life. Thus Christianity in its 
struggle for happiness has taken up negation 
into the heart of life, and thereby for the first 
time made life truly superior to it. If there 
is a consequent danger that life may tend too 
much towards softness, mildness, and gentle- 
ness, this one-sidedness is counteracted by a 
strong impulse towards activity proceeding 
from the innermost being of Christianity: 
did it not come to renew the world, to put 






THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 363 

humanity on its feet again, to build up a 
kingdom of God even on earth ? It promises, 
therefore, not merely deliverance from pain 
and guilt but also the revelation of a new 
and higher life. But it cannot be denied 
that historical circumstances have permitted 
this affirmative side of Christianity to develop 
to a much smaller extent than the negative : 
once more it was the influence, so often 
described, of that weary and languid period 
w r hich gave the one side an unwarrantable 
predominance. Complete deliverance from 
suffering and all the confused bustle of the 
world, rest and peace of mind — these became 
the highest of aims. 

However convinced we may be that this 
development of Christianity which holds aloof 
from the world does not extend to its inmost 
essence, and that it leaves open the possibility 
of other developments, it at first gained the 
victory over them and ruled for long ages. 
The difficulty about this kind of Christianity, 
which has met us under many different forms. 



864 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

can be clearly seen also in connection with the 
problem of happiness. For it seeks happiness 
too much in separation from the world ; it is 
in danger of sinking into weakness by not 
grappling with things courageously but only 
rising superior to them in the mind. Since 
feeling is not sufficiently transformed into 
action, it is impossible for happiness to inform 
and animate the whole of life. Another 
drawback arises from the fact that the 
emphasis on suffering easily leads to a 
lingering over mere suffering, indeed to a 
sentimental revelling in pain, such as we 
see especially in religious poetry and often in 
an unedifying form. A further consideration 
is that a happiness which is thus divorced 
from the rest of life must become insecure 
as soon as the whole of this religious 
system atization of life begins in any way to 
be doubted : but we all know that such 
doubts did arise and have spread. The 
history of Christianity shows, it is true, much 
diversity on all these points : the medieval 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS S65 

system of Catholicism appears in very different 
hues ; still there is no mistaking the wide 
divergence between the predominantly passive 
character of the middle ages and the greater 
activity which proceeded from the Reformation 
and which has reacted even on Catholicism. 
For the Reformation, in imposing the strong 
contrasts of the Christian life on the soul of 
every individual, in rousing in it a greater 
stir of emotion and summoning it to more 
vigorous activity, could not but effect an 
inner transformation of happiness as well. 
But in spite of everything here also happiness 
remained a matter of the inner consciousness 
superior to the world ; it rested too much on 
a hopeful faith in a new order for it to ally 
itself with any valiant and vigorous attempt 
to grapple with and transform the surround- 
ing world. Hence it always retained a certain 
weakness and tenderness ; it is easy to under- 
stand how a period filled with a more vigorous 
vitality and pleasure in activity pressed beyond 
such a conception. 



366 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

This is what happened to a large extent in 
the modern period. In this period man seeks 
happiness not so much by retreating into the 
sanctuary of the soul as by coming out of 
himself, unfolding and utilizing his powers : a 
great deal here depends on the conviction that 
man is not assigned a limited capacity by 
nature and fate, but can grow without limit, 
continually develop new powers, and set him- 
self higher and higher aims. Nothing seems 
to give a clearer proof of man's greatness, and 
indeed of his relationship with the Deity, than 
this capacity for progress to infinity. On the 
very threshold of the modern period it is 
absolutely clear that this faith in progress 
brings with it an essentially different sense of 
happiness, a more vigorous and joyous condi- 
tion of soul than was known to the middle 
ages. Thus we read in Nicolaus of Cusa, the 
first modern thinker : " To be able to know 
ever more and more without end, this is our 
likeness to the eternal wisdom. Man always 
desires to know better what he knows and to 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS S67 

love more what he loves, and the whole world 
is not sufficient for him because it does not 
satisfy his craving for knowledge." With 
such a growth of endeavour the spirit also 
must grow in itself: " Like a fire which is 
kindled from the flint-stone, the spirit can 
grow without limit through the light which 
streams from it." This feeling is also expressed 
in the succeeding centuries with particular 
clearness in the thinkers who are the principal 
representatives of the modern movement. 
Thus Leibniz is filled with a vigorous faith in 
progress and derives from it a sense of happi- 
ness and joy. Thus even Hegel is carried 
safely over all the oppositions and vexations 
of existence by the consciousness of the 
constant progress of the whole. 

But this faith in progress gains in weight 
and content principally because the movement 
does not merely increase the powers of the 
individual subject but develops the general 
situation and makes reality more and more 
rational. A central position is here obtained 



! 



368 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

by work. In work an activity is recognized 
which brings us into the closest connection 
with things, since it can take up their nature 
and necessity into itself and conform to them. 
While man thus binds himself more closely to 
his cosmic environment by means of work, he 
has a right to hope that by his efforts the 
condition of reality may be raised and all the 
more so because modern work has tended to 
form extensive complexes, has united the 
powers of individuals more closely, and by 
uniting them has made them capable of 
achieving incomparably higher results. But 
if man has thus gained in work a means to 
advance the condition of the world, it has 
given him at the same time stability in his 
own nature, it has given his life a broader 
foundation and a secure position in face of the 
world. Hence for the modern man happiness 
is closely bound up with work ; here for the 
first time work, which was put in the back- 
ground by the earlier systems of life, comes to 
be fully appreciated, and by combination with 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 369 

it happiness becomes stronger, calmer, and 
richer : it is now able to penetrate the whole 
range of life. 

This modification of work and of happiness 
can be followed out in different directions. 
We see it, above all, in the building up of 
civilization, that is, a condition of life peculiar 
to man as opposed to mere nature. By valiant 
struggle with the apparently alien world man 
extends the boundaries of his domain and con- 
structs for himself his own sphere of life. It 
is science especially which takes the lead in 
this movement and thus proves its power over 
things. It is especially clear in connection 
with science how the individual in the modern 
period has to fit himself into a whole and to 
carry out his work in the ranks. But if 
definite limits are thus assigned to every 
individual, he may cherish the consciousness 
that in his place he is indispensable, and by 
his activity is furthering the construction of the 
whole : " Many shall run to and fro and know- 
ledge shall be increased" (Bacon, with refer- 

24 



370 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

ence to a passage in Daniel). 1 In a still bolder 
flight of thought Leibniz declared that we 
men, like little gods, in virtue of our reason, 
are able to imitate the architect of the world 
and promote the welfare of the whole. Man 
is " not a part but an image of the Deity, a 
representation of the universe, a citizen of the 
divine city." If activity here seems to be 
principally directed towards serving the pro- 
gress of the universe, at the same time there 
shows itself in modern society an eager and 
active endeavour to raise the condition of 
humanity, to eliminate as far as possible all 
irrationality from human relations, and to give 
more and more strength to reason. For here 
the conviction no longer prevails that the 
condition of human affairs has been established 
once for all by the will of God and must be 
accepted by us as an unchangeable fate, but 
here also everything appears to be in flux and 
capable of enhancement. Thus activity here 

1 Bacon, De Aug. Sclent, II. , x. : " Plurimi pertransibunt 
et augebitur scientia." Cf. Dan. xii. 4. 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 371 

finds high tasks to perform, all the more since 
"everything in human form" becomes an 
object of sympathy, indeed a growing feeling 
of solidarity makes every individual seem 
responsible for all the distress and injustice 
around him. Much darkness and suffering 
is now really felt for the first time, but it is 
unable to overwhelm man because his power 
to cope with the misery can increase indefinitely. 
The feeling of power and happiness must grow 
to an immeasurable extent if man can thus 
take up the battle with circumstances and 
bring about a new condition of the world. 

In this movement as a whole the first thing 
which attracts our notice is its larger and 
broader effects, but the movement is no less 
significant in its relation to what is small and 
individual. For it is an essential feature of 
modern life that every individual is recognized 
as furnishing a specific problem : at every 
point his dormant power must be awakened, 
the different elements whose previous state is 
a confused medley must be adjusted to one 



372 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

another and subordinated to a unity which is 
able to raise everything to a higher level. In 
the development of this effort the individual 
finds an exalted happiness in spite of all the 
toil and labour. For he here becomes a world 
of his own which possesses a value for the 
whole just because it is unique. This in- 
dividualizing process extends to all human 
relations, a uniform development is every- 
where avoided, and by the cultivation of 
individuality a specific task and joy is revealed. 
In the whole there is apparent a powerful 
vital impulse which is occasionally heightened 
to fierce passion. To be sure, an objective 
compulsion and law is also at work and pre- 
vents a lapse into merely subjective excite- 
ment : resignation, too, is not wanting, since at 
a given moment every achievement has de- 
finite limits, and since, further, the individual 
cannot accomplish anything by himself but 
only together with the others and in sub- 
ordination to a common aim. But all the 
limitations and restrictions at the individual 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 373 

point and the particular moment are out- 
weighed by the faith in a better future and 
in the infinitely increasing power of the 
human race. This faith is as indispensable to 
the modern period as that in the harmony of 
the universe was to antiquity and that in a 
benevolent Deity to the middle ages. Such 
faith in progress enables the modern man to 
bear all his labours cheerfully and to preserve 
a vigorous sense of happiness in the midst of 
all his work and care. It seems to give life 
an absolutely positive content and human 
happiness a sure foundation. 

We know to what a magnificent develop- 
ment of life this movement has led, but we 
also know what complications have arisen 
from it and how these complications are placed 
in the foreground by the consciousness of the 
present. The faith in progress which we have 
described has been able to fill the whole of 
life and make it happy only in virtue of the 
conviction that human activity could pene- 



374 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

trate things to their foundations and enable 
man to appropriate them completely ; but 
whether this really takes place became open to 
stronger and stronger doubt. Such doubts 
first affect science, the leading force in 
modern culture. While the height of the 
Enlightenment was absolutely convinced of its 
ability to fathom things to the very bottom, 
Kant has demonstrated to us with irresistible 
force the limitations of our knowledge. Far 
beyond the domain of philosophy, however, 
the conviction has become established in the 
nineteenth century that behind the work of 
our thought there lies a world of things which 
remains inaccessible, and that the mutual 
relations of things are all that we can hope to 
ascertain. We cannot explain and understand 
but only determine and describe. Hence we 
are cut off from truth in the sense in which it 
admits us to the essence of things and frees 
us from the narrowness of a merely human 
conceptual world. But what applies to truth 
applies also to the whole of culture. It has 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 375 

been brought home to us more and more that, 
however much we are able to alter and im- 
prove in the external relations of things, we 
do not thereby attain an essentially new life 
and a higher kind of being : all the progress 
of civilization has resulted in little genuine 
culture and little development of the condi- 
tion of the soul. We cannot avoid asking the 
question whether such an activity on the mere 
surface of things is worth the enormous toil 
and labour which it costs. 

Similar misgivings are also aroused by our 
relation to man. The modern movement 
rested on a firm belief in man's efficiency and 
natural goodness : it seemed that, if only 
ample room were provided for the full de- 
velopment of his powers, everything would 
shape itself for the best and a kingdom of 
reason would be established in the sphere of 
humanity. Now, in fact, deliverance from all 
kinds of constraint has been secured and 
human powers have been unfolded as never 
before ; but can we shut our eyes to all the 



376 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

complications, struggles, and aberrations which 
have proceeded from this deliverance ? At the 
beginning of the modern period the conception 
of humanity included an emphatic judgment 
of value: to develop the human element in 
man still seemed to be at our classical period 
to raise life to a proud height, but now we are 
more conscious of what is petty and mean in 
man ; we perceive sharp conflicts in his being, 
we find him not merely inadequate for the 
tasks which his own nature sets him, but we see 
his liberated spiritual powers to a large extent 
enlisted in the service of selfishness and, in 
general, of pettily human interests, and 
thereby diverted from their true ends. Hence 
it is not to be wondered at if there is aroused 
a longing for deliverance from the pettiness of 
man, a craving for greatness ; but it must be 
confessed that as a rule these ambitions 
quickly succumb again to the influence of 
pettiness and vanity. In such a situation how 
could it fill us with assured confidence and 
pure happiness to work for the improvement 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 377 

of the human situation ? The contradictions 
which are here involved fail to be fully realized 
at the present day simply because estimates of 
man which belong to older schemes of life still 
retain their influence although they have no 
foundation in our period. The religious esti- 
mate of man as a " seed-corn of eternity " and the 
object of infinite love still retains its influence ; 
from the point of view of the faith in reason 
which was characteristic of the Enlightenment, 
man appears as belonging to a kingdom of 
reason, and in virtue of his freedom incompar- 
ably superior to all mere nature ; but religion 
has been shaken and faith in reason has waned, 
and hence in the end this estimate cannot 
possibly be maintained. But if it is seriously 
meant to transform man into a mere item in 
a rounded-off natural world, this does away 
with all possibility of bringing any counter- 
acting influence to bear on this state of im- 
mediate existence, all possibility of inner eleva- 
tion, and we do not see how the most distant 
future can produce any change in this respect. 



378 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

These complications extend also into the 
sphere of individual existence, the full re- 
cognition of which was a leading feature in 
the modern movement of culture. Certainly 
much stimulus and pleasure still arise from 
the activity of individuals, but the foundation 
has been overthrown which gave these en- 
deavours a significant content and an assured 
direction. Formerly the individual seemed 
to be valuable and the work expended on his 
education profitable because in him infinite 
life strove to express itself in a unique way. 
because, therefore, every individual might 
hope that the development of his own nature 
advanced the condition of the universe. But 
since life is now more and more exclusively 
concentrated in the visible sphere, we have 
become continually more uncertain of this 
foundation ; but, if the individual is com- 
pletely tied to the sphere of immediate ex- 
istence, his unlimited development must lead 
both to severe collisions with other individuals 
and mutual hostility, and also to crude sel- 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 379 

fishness or even complacent vanity. Once 
thought has embraced all these points in a 
single survey, the emptiness and unedifying 
character of the whole cannot possibly escape 
notice ; and then the solution of the problem 
of happiness can no longer be expected from 
the fullest possible development and recogni- 
tion of all individuals. 

These misgivings are further increased by 
the modern development of work and the 
urgency with which its problems are thrust 
into the foreground. At the beginning work 
still stood in close connection with the soul 
of man : the individual could take a pride 
and joy in its progress because he saw his 
own product in it ; at the same time it still 
possessed a restful character, it set life in 
motion but the motion as yet was not feverish 
or violent ; it still afforded periods of leisure 
which permitted men to review the whole 
and to transform it into a joyous possession. 
And now what a change ! By forming 
gigantic complexes work has severed itself 



880 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

more and more from the soul of the individual 
and goes its way unconcerned for his weal or 
w r oe ; owing to its being at the same time 
more and more specialized and differentiated, 
the part which the individual has in his field 
of vision and under his own control becomes 
smaller and smaller. Hence his psychical 
power also is developed only in a certain 
direction while the rest remains unemployed 
and undeveloped. To this must be added 
the speeding-up process by which modern 
work has been more and more invaded ; it 
forces man to be always on his guard and 
to hold his powers in constant readiness for 
fresh efforts ; this life must bind man hand 
and foot to the temporary situation, keep 
him in a state of breathless tension and 
transform him more and more into a mere 
struggler for existence. It cannot be denied 
that the whole has led to prodigious results, 
but it becomes clearer and clearer that the 
man as a whole can find no happiness in such 
a life. But if this work thus strains him to 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 381 

the utmost without leading him through all 
his toil and agitation to any genuine happiness, 
and if at the same time it becomes clearer 
and clearer that, in spite of the pre-eminent 
cultivation of skill in particular directions, 
man is sinking to a lower level in the whole 
of his being, is becoming insignificant and in 
the end empty, the question necessarily arises 
whether all this work of civilization, which 
renders man neither happy nor noble nor 
great, is not a self-deception on the part of 
humanity ; whether it is not a huge contradic- 
tion to set all one's power in motion with such 
passionate earnestness, and, as regards the 
whole of one's being, to lose rather than to 
gain. What is then the real object for which 
man works if he thus becomes a mere means 
and instrument in a soulless process of civiliza- 
tion ? We have just seen that he does not 
attain happiness for himself in the process. 
For whom, then, does he work ? For a future 
which is wholly veiled from him and which 
will perhaps in all its progress only be involved 



382 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

in increasing confusion ? Or for the whole of 
humanity, which yet from the point of view 
of immediate existence is a pale and empty 
abstraction, and which, as such, will never be 
able to overcome the interests and passions of 
the individual ? Everything contributes to 
raise doubts as to whether the path pursued 
by the modern period, especially if it be 
pursued exclusively, is able to lead man to 
happiness. It is coming more and more 
to be believed that, as every individual man 
is more than his work, so also the whole of 
humanity must be more than the civilization 
based on work. It is the craving after in- 
dependence of life and true happiness which 
drives us beyond the civilization based on 
mere work and compels us to seek further 
widths and depths of life. But where are 
they to be found ? 

The craving after a more spiritual civiliza- 
tion as opposed to that based on mere work 
has become stronger and stronger and brings 
to the front many counteracting influences. 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 883 

Perhaps the most significant of these influ- 
ences is the development of an aesthetic 
culture which runs through the period in 
broad waves. We cannot deny that this 
movement of culture has furnished a valuable 
stimulus and indeed has led to an advance : 
it has again laid a stronger emphasis on the 
independence of individuality, it has given life 
more immediacy and more free movement, 
more suppleness and more joyousness, and it 
may in consequence seem to restore genuine 
happiness. But in reality, as a closer ex- 
amination is bound to show, when confined 
to its own resources it does not afford a 
happiness which penetrates to the inmost 
heart of life and gives it warmth and eleva- 
tion, but only a rich diversity of individual 
agreeable moments, of pleasant stimulations 
which are not combined into a whole. What 
is here offered is only a selfish though refined 
enjoyment on the part of the educated, and 
often over-educated individual : there is an 
absence as well of a high goal as of an 



384 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

essential content of life. But without these, 
what has happened in the end to all forms 
of Epicureanism will also happen here in the 
midst of all the enjoyments, however refined 
they may be — a feeling of inner emptiness 
will break forth irresistibly and reject all the 
proffered happiness as shallow and artificial. 
Thus, although the individual, and indeed 
whole circles of society, may seek in this 
manner to escape the complications and 
troubles of the period, the way to overcome 
them is not revealed by a superficial life of 
this character. 

In another direction it is sought to win 
true happiness by demanding more person- 
ality and a more personal shaping of exist- 
ence : the ethical task is here given precedence 
over artistic activity. This view certainly 
contains an incontestable truth, only we must 
recognize that a high and distant goal is here 
in question, the attainment of which should 
not be anticipated so lightly and easily as it 
often is. We do not by any means become 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 385 

personalities by pronouncing the word with 

affection and emphasis, for subjective emotion 

is not enough to start our life on a new path. 

The thought of personality possesses value 

only so far as the word is backed by action, 

and indeed action which involves nothing less 

than the complete transformation of the old, 

and the building up of a new reality. How 

much this thought demands is shown with 

particular clearness by the life-work of Kant. 

He saw clearly that there is no personality 

unless life is raised to freedom, independence, 

and spontaneity, but he saw just as clearly 

that for such freedom and spontaneity the 

world of natural existence does not afford the 

smallest room : hence a complete reversal of 

the former world-picture became necessary, 

and Kant employed all his mighty powers in 

its accomplishment. But to-day it often looks 

as if life could be raised to an essentially 

higher level within the world of natural 

existence without much trouble if only it 

were brought into more vigorous and direct 

25 



386 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

relation with the individual units. This, 
however, is a dangerous error. If we do 
not bring the living units into connection 
with a new kind of being and thereby give 
them an essentially new content, this move- 
ment, by awakening their self-consciousness 
and self-complacency, may easily do more 
harm than good, and, with all its subjective 
stimulation, provide little genuine happiness ; 
it is also dangerous in so far as it veils the 
difficult problem with which we are here 
concerned. The modern period, like all 
others, is especially eloquent and enthusiastic 
about that in which it is most lacking : we 
are in painful want of vigorous and strongly 
marked personalities of original force, and we 
talk incessantly about personality, its value 
and greatness. 

If, then, the conclusion of the matter is that 
we cannot overcome the complications and 
gain a share of happiness from the immediate 
situation, but can do so only by an energetic 
transformation of the whole, it is our obvious 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 387 

course to turn our gaze upon the whole of 
history in order to gain thereby a wider 
perspective and perhaps a point of support. 
Thus viewed, however, the problem really 
seems to be greater rather than smaller. 
For our own examination showed that 
wherever the desire for happiness found 
satisfaction on the high level of the spiritual 
life it involved definite convictions, but that 
these convictions in the changing course of 
the ages came to lose their immediacy and 
their force. With the Greeks the struggle 
for happiness rested on faith in the ration- 
ality and beauty of the universe, the vigorous 
realization of which would raise man above 
all the constraints of existence ; in Christianity 
it was the steadfast faith in the loving care of 
an almighty Deity which supported man in 
all the trials of life ; the modern period relied 
on the reason indwelling in the human race 
and on the unlimited capacity for increase 
possessed by human faculties ; here it was 
faith in a better future which raised man 



\ 



388 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

above all the limitations of the moment. For 
us moderns, however, the thought of the 
beauty of the universe has faded away before 
the dark actuality and the severe struggle for 
existence which modern science displays to 
us ; and we all know how religious faith has 
been most severely shaken in the life of 
culture. But least of all can a closer ex- 
amination fail to recognize how seriously 
faith in man and his spiritual greatness has 
been impaired ; for here the test of experi- 
ence lay nearest to hand, and experience, 
wherever it has given a candid verdict, has 
decided in the negative. 

Hence that which afforded earlier periods 
a firm foundation for happiness and an aid to 
its development offers us at the present day 
no sufficient point of support. In face of the 
influences of the world which press so strongly 
upon us we lack a rounded-off world of 
thought to mitigate, transform, and turn to 
account the doubts and difficulties of life: 
in particular we lack a single supreme truth, 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 889 

and hence we stand defenceless in face of an 
all-powerful Fate. Is it to be wondered at 
if in these circumstances pessimism boldly 
raises its head and ever advances further? 
We now see clearly that the very thing which 
exalts man above nature involves him in vast 
problems, with which he seems unable to 
cope. It cannot fail to be recognized that a 
new kind of life arises in him and separates 
him from other beings. This life, however, 
seems to find no support and help in the great 
world ; it sees itself bound to unintelligible 
conditions and treated by the process of 
nature as if it were a thing of no importance. 
Since at the same time in man himself it is 
generally languid and burdened with sharp 
contradictions, it seems unable to prevail 
against all that alien world upon which it 
supervenes. But with all its weakness and 
constraint, this new life yet maintains its 
standards and forces man to apply them to 
all his doings and dealings. After this move- 
ment the mere comfort of natural existence 



390 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

can no longer be felt as satisfying: man's 
awakened power demands a goal and an 
intrinsic value, but it does not find what it 
seeks and renunciation is impossible. Man's 
thought carries in itself the idea of infinity 
and eternity, and thereby destroys all the 
satisfaction which can be found in the tem- 
poral and the finite. Viewed in relation to 
infinity man and all his doings must seem 
unspeakably small ; the individual, too, as a 
thinking being cannot help feeling the cramp- 
ing limits, the nullity, even, of his particular 
sphere ; the thought of eternity contracts into 
a fleeting span the whole duration of our life 
and threatens to take from it all its zest and 
heart. But the course of history heightens 
rather than diminishes these complications. 
For the more man develops his specific 
characteristics, and the further his thought 
carries him beyond the sphere of immediate 
existence, giving him at the same time a 
feeling of freedom, the greater appears the 
resistance of an alien world which does not 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 391 

partake in his advance, and the heavier the 
pressure of a rigid order of things. Human 
experience, too, teaches us plainly the moment 
we consult it that the progress of civilization 
rather leads man into increasing complications 
than bestows upon him pure and complete 
happiness. 

Thus the problem of happiness runs through 
the whole movement of history, and that 
which is in question is not merely the paths 
which lead to the goals but the goals them- 
selves. It follows that beyond all doubt 
philosophy has here a great task to perform, 
and indeed that it is here indispensable to 
humanity. For if a natural instinct does not 
infallibly show us the way, and if at the same 
time all our efforts after genuine happiness 
need to be founded on definite convictions 
about the Whole, humanity cannot dispense 
with a vigorous effort of introspection. Here, 
too, we encounter the problem of truth ; no 
amount of subjective wishing and willing can 
lead us on the path to happiness unless the 



392 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

possibility of happiness is guaranteed by the 
reality of things. But to give information 
on this head is pre-eminently the task of 
philosophy. 

But, as all our previous discussion shows, 
it will make no progress unless a successful 
attempt is made to extract from the ex- 
periences of human life an all-embracing fact 
or supreme truth which shall help us to con- 
centrate and strengthen our powers and render 
them superior to obstacles. The experiences 
and changes of the ages show that we have 
to seek a fact of this nature primarily not 
outside but within ourselves, that is, not in 
the mere circumstances of the individual but 
in a vital process superior to him. The 
peculiarly human attributes have been the 
source of all complications ; these complica- 
tions, therefore, will in all probability be 
insoluble unless the specifically human ele- 
ment is further deepened, brought into wider 
connections, and thereby made a match for 
the indifferent or hostile world. With this 



THE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS 898 

we return to the problem of an independent 
spiritual life superior to the mere man. If 
the spiritual process which takes place in us 
is a mere product of man, this involves the 
disappearance of all hope of building up a 
specific world from it as a centre, and of 
winning at the same time significance, value, 
and happiness for human existence : on this 
conclusion all our labour and toil is lost, and 
victory rests finally with negation. Hence 
only one way is left, viz., to understand and 
treat the spiritual life as an independent 
world ; only thus can we hope to win a 
content for our life and to save it from the 
nothingness into which otherwise it irretriev- 
ably sinks. With the appropriation of these 
connections our existence is by no means 
transformed into vain pleasure and harmony, 
but rather the contrasts and conflicts of 
existence may at first appear only greater and 
more intolerable, and the battle may become 
fiercer than ever. But if human endeavour is 
provided with a firm point of support in the 



394 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

movement of the universe and allowed to 
draw upon its resources, it can confidently 
begin the battle ; it is then at least certain 
that our life is not in vain, but that something 
of moment is accomplished in it, however far 
we may be from having a clear view of the 
whole. But if philosophy has in general been 
found indispensable to the battle for happiness, 
it must become still more so when w r e see 
that what is needed is a radical deepening 
and a vigorous unification of life. For what 
is there more qualified than philosophy for 
the task first of destroying the illusory hopes 
which the modern world holds out to man, 
and secondly, of pushing on the work of 
positive construction and searching out new 
paths ? 



Conclusion 

A variety of pictures has passed before us, 
a variety of movements has come within our 
view in connection with the different funda- 
mental problems. Nowhere, however, have 
we seen the movement advancing in a straight 
line, but the historical aspect is complicated 
by a series of reactions and revulsions. But at 
the same time it has become clear that the 
problems of the past reach into the present and 
that our work is conditioned by the strong 
influences of history. Now the goal appears 
as the overcoming of traditional oppositions, 
now as the more vigorous following up of a 
course successfully begun, but in almost every 
case a glance backwards will make our own 
task clearer : we cannot doubt that our work, 
to be successful, must meet the demands of a 

395 



396 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

situation conditioned by its antecedents. But 
it has become just as apparent that we cannot 
simply accept a particular stimulus and allow 
ourselves to be carried on without trouble by 
the stream of history. For we have seen 
everywhere that the earlier achievements can 
no longer satisfy us in their more detailed 
development, that the movement itself has 
produced a new situation with peculiar 
demands. Not only an abundance of problems 
encompasses us on all sides but our spiritual 
condition as a whole has become insecure ; we 
feel with particular distinctness at the present 
day that the life of humanity is not being built 
up in peace and security on a fixed foundation, 
but that we have continually to renew the 
struggle for its continuance and its main 
principles. Everything tends to show that our 
period is full of tension and occupied with high 
tasks ; it is obvious that we have come to a 
point where it is a question of recurring to the 
fundamental problems, to the elementary con- 
ditions of our spiritual existence ; we are 



CONCLUSION 597 

urgently called to the search for new paths, 
to independent creative effort. 

But the average attainment of the period by 
no means corresponds to the demands of the 
spiritual situation ; we feel, perhaps to a greater 
extent than other epochs, how far human 
conduct can diverge from the inner necessities 
of the spiritual life. The spiritual situation of 
the present urgently calls for a synthesis of 
life, for an overcoming of oppositions } for a 
system atization which should deal with the 
whole, and also for a concentration of men on 
the search for common paths. In place of this 
we find a high degree of isolation, a complete 
separation into different parties and groups, a 
treatment of problems from the standpoint of 
mere party. This division into different circles 
and sharp oppositions hinders all mutual 
understanding ; to each it seems to admit of 
no doubt that his own way of thinking is the 
best and constitutes the certain cure for all 
ills ; it is never doubted that the other party 
is entirely in the wrong. Self-complacency 



398 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

and dogmatism thus flourish luxuriantly, the 
constant criticism of others stifles all self- 
criticism. Thus the different movements are 
bound to intersect and hinder one another, 
and in the end a confused chaos must arise, 
from which it is impossible for successful 
creative efforts to proceed. 

In addition, the spiritual situation demands 
a vigorous deepening of thought and life, for 
otherwise how should we be equal to dealing 
with the difficult problems which the age lays 
upon our shoulders, or how could we wrest 
from this confused medley goals and paths of 
our own ? In place of this the average man 
clings to the surface of things and is content 
to do so : we surrender ourselves to the first 
impression and do not perceive into what 
complexity it may lead us ; hence everything 
seems easy and smooth and all difficulties 
appear to exist only in the imagination of those 
who are involved in old prejudices. This mode 
of thought further leads us into sharp contra- 
dictions in our own being by bidding us follow 



CONCLUSION 399 

first one and then another impression ; and 
hence in particular we often seek to retain as 
an effect and consequence what we have 
definitely rejected as a cause and ground. In 
this way alone has it become possible for the 
thought and the action of the period to employ 
as a general rule fundamentally different 
standards of value. Our thought is occupied 
chiefly with the visible world and shuns as 
"metaphysics" everything which transcends 
its limits ; but in action there prevails a vague 
idealism, which treats conceptions such as 
reason and personality, humanity and human 
greatness, as incontestable values, without 
realizing that with them a new world is intro- 
duced. But in the end our spiritual creative 
efforts are oppressed by a desire for negation, 
an inclination to expect great benefit from the 
destruction of traditional systems, from the 
rejection of old solutions. Now the age 
certainly contains much that is obsolete and 
rotten, which urgently needs to be removed, 
but negation cannot produce any true advance 



400 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

unless behind it there lies the impelling force 
of an affirmation, which gives effort a fixed 
direction. But this is usually lacking ; it is 
the negation as negation which satisfies many 
and is thought to be something great. But 
since there is usually nothing narrower and 
more impatient than negation, it produces to- 
day a dogmatism, and indeed a despotism, 
which is bound to impair to the most serious 
extent spiritual creative efforts and the true 
knowledge of the present situation. 

But if the surface of things offers the most 
obstinate resistance to the necessary renewal 
of culture and strengthening of inner life, and 
if no essential progress of life is possible from 
this starting-point, but only in opposition to 
it, we may welcome as evidence of an increas- 
ing reaction the fact that this obstacle is 
coming to be more and more felt, and that 
the necessity of deliverance from isolation, 
shallowness, and negation is becoming more 
and more clearly recognized. The more, how- 
ever, spiritual work strives to gain indepen- 




CONCLUSION 40J 

dence of the superficiality of the period, and 
the more the desire emerges for greater depths 
and more essential contents of life, the more 
valuable must the work of philosophy appear, 
and the less doubt can there be felt that it is 
indispensable for overcoming the present crisis 
of spiritual life. 

But at the same time it will also be clearly 
seen that philosophy must have a special 
nature in order to be able to discharge these 
tasks. It must not be an affair of mere 
learning, nor can it remain a mere blending 
of reflection and subjective acuteness, but it 
must become an energetic pressing forward 
and a spiritual creation, it must work out 
depths of our life, awaken dormant powers, 
co-ordinate isolated efforts, indeed it must 
reveal a new reality if it is to help humanity 
to deal with these leading questions and at 
the same time to preserve the independence of 
its own position. For such progressive crea- 
tion it has to seek a new and peculiar stand- 
point, and in this sense it must assume the 

26 



402 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT 

form of a metaphysics. But it cannot avoid 
the errors of the old metaphysics unless it 
starts from the process of life, as we see it not 
in the isolated individual but in the whole of 
humanity, and unless it succeeds in the 
attempt to discover and develop in mankind 
a general tendency opposed to the initial 
situation. 

This is much what we had in mind when 
we spoke of a philosophy of spiritual life and 
desired the elaboration of such a philosophy. 
It is only such a philosophy which can co- 
ordinate and make use of all the experience 
accumulated in the history of the world 
without surrendering the rights of the living 
present ; only such can place us under the 
constraint of an inner necessity and at the 
same time summon us to fresh and joyous 
activity ; it alone can do justice to the 
diversity of the relations of life and at the 
same time strive after a straightforward sim- 
plicity ; it alone can in the end serve to 
promote the advancement of life without 






CONCLUSION 403 

sinking to a matter of mere utility. A 
philosophy of this nature is especially con- 
genial to the peculiar characteristics of the 
German people and the traditions of German 
life : a nation which has produced men like 
Eckhardt and Leibniz, Kant and Hegel, and 
so many other thinkers spiritually akin to 
these, will never be able to give up the desire 
for a philosophy which seeks to regard reality 
from the inside and from the point of view of 
the whole, and which, in the midst of earnest 
and laborious investigation, strives to raise the 
whole of human life to a higher level. 



INDEX OF NAMES 



Antiquity (Greek), 33 ff., 107 ff., 199 ff, 284 ff., 338 ff, 

356 ff. 
Archimedes, 73, 146, 234. 
Aristotle, -2, 8, 37 ff., 61, 71, 109, HO, 125, 203, 207, 275, 

285, 287, 289, 290, 338, 343 ff. 
Athenagoras, 294. 
Augustine, 58, 120, 121, 140, 213, 277, 295. 

Bacon, 369, 370. 

Christianity, 49 ff., 118 ff., 134, 174, 176, 211 ff, 251, 252, 

294 ff, 299, 303, 357 ff 
Church, 57 ff, 69, 93, 99, 124, 223, 226, 301. 
Comte, 91, 242, 324. 

Descartes, 73, 146, 149, 307. 

Eckhardt, 403. 

Eleatics, 33. 

Enlightenment, 79, 132, 147, 149, 184, 233, 307 ff, 374, 

377. 
Epicurus, 4, 8, 384. 

Fichte, 307, 319. 

Goethe, 139, 141, 205, 286. 
Gregory of Nyssa, 36 1. 

Hegel, 10, 54, 89, 138, 139, 141, 150, 151, 242, 307, 319, 
326, 367, 403. 

405 



406 INDEX OF NAMES 

Herbart, 10. 
Herder, 71. 

Kant, 6, 71, 72, 75, 147, 149, 307, 313, 315 ff., 374, 385, 
403. 

Leibniz, 74, 75, 138, 147, 307, 309, 367, 370, 403. 
Locke, 71. 

Middle Ages, 58 ff., 66, 125, 128, 133, 167. 

Mill, 324. 

Modern Period, 66 ff., 131, 134, 145, 146, 169, 177, 222, 

227, 252, 302, 305, 366 ff. 
Mysticism, 47 ff., 63, 127, 140, 159. 

Nicolaus of Cusa, 366. 

Plato, 2, 6, 8, 35 ff, 105, 108, 173, 207, 285, 287, 340 ff 
Plotinus, 44 ff., 117, 120, 286, 291 ff, 338, 350 ff. 
Positivism, 91, 141, 242, 322, 324. 
Pragmatism, 322 ff. 
Protestantism, 298, 301. 
Pythagoreans, 32. 

Reformation, 72, 132, 365. 

Renaissance, 132. 

Roman Catholicism, 60, 164 ff, 225, 297 ff, 301, 365. 

Scepticism, 291. 

Schelling, 307. 

Scholasticism, 6l ff., 69, 126, 289. 

Socrates, 4. 

Sophists, 4, 34. 

Spencer, 324. 

Spinoza, 147, 189, 277, 278, 307, 309 ff, 333. 

Stoicism, 4, 8, 42, 289, 290. 



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thoroughness and all-round competency of which this volume is a good speci- 
men ; while such splendid historical veracity and outspokenness would hardly 
be possible in the present or would-be holder of an English theological chair." 
— Dr Rashdall in The Speaker. 

Vol. XVI. 

THE RELIGIONS OF AUTHORITY AND THE RE- 
LIGION OF THE SPIRIT. By the late Auguste Sabatier, 
Professor of the University of Paris, Dean of the Protestant Theo- 
logical Faculty. With a Memoir of the Author by Jean Reville, 
Professor in the Protestant Theological Faculty of the University 
of Paris, and a Note by Madame Sabatier. 

"Without any exaggeration, this is to be described as a great book, the 
finest legacy of the author to the Protestant Church of France and to the theo- 
logical thought of the age. Written in the logical and lucid style which is 
characteristic of the best French theology, and excellently translated, it is a 
work which any thoughtful person, whether a professional student or not, 
might read without difficulty." — Glasgow Herald. 

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Vols. XV. and XVII. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY. By Paul Wernle, 
Professor Extraordinary of Modern Church History at the Uni- 
versity of Basel. Revised by the Author, and translated by the 
Rev. G. A. Bienemann, M.A. , and edited, with an Introduction, 
by the Rev. W. D. Morrison, LL.D. 

Vol. I. The Rise of the Religion. 

Vol. II. The Development of the Church. 

Dr. Marcus Dods in the British Weekly — " We cannot recall any work by 
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The Earlier Works included in the Library are : — 

HISTORY OF DOGMA. By Adolf Harnack, Berlin. Translated 
from the Third German Edition. Edited by the Rev. Prof. A. 
B. Bruce, D.D. 7 vols. (New Series, Vols. II., VII., VIII., IX., 
X., XL, XII.) 8vo, cloth, each \os. 6d. ; half-leather, suitable for 
presentation, 12s. 6d. 

ABBREVIATED LIST OF CONTENTS :— Vol, I.: Intro- 
ductory Division : — I. Prolegomena to the Study of the History 
of Dogma. II. The Presuppositions of the History of Dogma. 
Division I. — The Genesis of Ecclesiastical Dogma, or the 
Genesis of the Catholic Apostolic Dogmatic Theology, and the 
first Scientific Ecclesiastical System of Doctrine. Book I. : — 
The Preparation, Vol. II. : Division I. Book II. : — The 
Laying of the Foundation. — I. Historical Survey. — /. Fixing and 
gradual Secularising of Christianity as a Church. — II. Fixing and 
gradual Hellenising 0} Christianity as a System of Doctrine, Vol. 
III. : Division I. Book II.: — The Laying of the Foundation — 
continued. Division II. — The Development of Ecclesiastical 
Dogma. Book I. : — The History of the Development of Dogma as 
the Doctrine of the God- man on the basis of Natural Theology. 

A. Presuppositions of Doctrine of Redemption or Natural Theology. 

B. The Doctrine of Redemption in the Person of the God-man in 
its historical development. Vol. IV. : Division II. Book I. : — 
The History of the Develop?nent of Dogma as the Doctrine of the 
God-man on the basis of Natural Theology — continued. Vol. V. : 
Division II. Book II. : — Expansion and Remodelling of Dogma 
into a Doctrine of Sin, Grace, and Means of Grace on the basis of 
the Church. Vol. VI. : Division II. Book II. -.—Expansion 
and Remodelling of Dogma into a Doctrine of Sin, Grace, and 

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THEOLOGICAL TRANSLATION LIBRARY— Continued. 

Means of Grace on the basis of the Church — continued. Vol. VII. : 
Division II. Book III. : — The Threefold Issue of the History of 
Dog??ia. — Full Index. 

"No work on Church history in recent times has had the influence of Prof. 
Harnack's History of Dogma." — Times. 

"A book which is admitted to be one of the most important theological works 
of the time." — Daily News. 

WHAT IS CHRISTIANITY? Sixteen Lectures delivered in 
the University of Berlin during the Winter Term, 1899- 1900. By 
Adolf Harnack. Translated by Thomas Bailey Saunders. (New 
Series, Vol. XIV.) Demy 8vo, cloth, 10s. 6d. ; can only be 
supplied when complete set of the New Series is ordered. 

Prof. W. Sanday of Oxford, in the examination of the work, says : — " I may 
assume that Harnack's book, which has attracted a good deal of attention in this 
country as in Germany, is by this time well known, and that its merits are 
recognised — its fresh and vivid descriptions, its breadth of view and skilful 
selection of points, its frankness, its genuine enthusiasm, its persistent effort to 
get at the living realities of religion." 

"Seldom has a treatise of the sort been at once so suggestive and so 
stimulating. Seldom have the results of so much learning been brought to bear 
on the religious problems which address themselves to the modern mind." — 
Pilot. 

"In many respects this is the most notable work of Prof. Harnack. . . . 
These lectures are most remarkable, both for the historical insight they display 
and for their elevation of tone and purpose." — Literature. 

THE COMMUNION OF THE CHRISTIAN WITH GOD : 
A Discussion in Agreement with the View of Luther. By 

W. Herrmann, Dr. Theol., Professor of Dogmatic Theology in the 
University of Marburg. Translated from the Second thoroughly 
revised Edition, with Special Annotations by the Author, by J. 
Sandys Stanyon, M.A. (New Series, Vol. IV.) 8vo, cloth. 
I or. 6d. 

" It will be seen from what has been said that this book is a very important 
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" We trust the book will be widely read, and should advise those who read it 
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"Instinct with genuine religious feeling; . . . exceedingly interesting and 
suggestive." — Glasgow Herald. 

A HISTORY OF THE HEBREWS. By R. Kittel, Ordinary 
Professor of Theology in the University of Breslau. In 2 vols. 
(New Series, Vols. III. and VI.) 8vo, cloth. Each volume, 
ioj-. 6d. 

Vol. I. Sources of Information and History of the Period 
up to the Death of Joshua. Translated by John Taylor, 
D.Lit., M.A. 

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Vol. II. Sources of Information and History of the 
Period down to the Babylonian Exile. Translated by Hope 
W. Hogg, B.D., and E. B. Speirs, D.D. 

" It is a sober and earnest reconstruction, for which every earnest student of 
the Old Testament should be grateful." — Christian World. 

u It will be a happy day for pulpit and pew when a well-thumbed copy of 
the History of the Hebrews is to be found in every manse and parsonage." — 
Literary World. 

"It is a work which cannot fail to attract the attention of thoughtful people 
in this country." — Pall Mall Gazette. 



AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TEXTUAL CRITICISM 
OF THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT. By Professor 
Eberhard Nestle, of Maulbronn. Translated from the Second 
Edition, with Corrections and Additions by the Author, by William 
Edie, B.D., and edited, with a Preface, by Allan Menzies, D.D., 
Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism in the University of St. 
Andrews. (New Series, Vol. XIII.) With eleven reproductions 
of Texts. Demy 8vo, tas. 6d. ; half-leather, 12s. 6d. 

"We have no living scholar more capable of accomplishing the fascinating 
task of preparing a complete introduction on the new and acknowledged prin- 
ciples than Prof. Nestle. This book will stand the most rigorous scrutiny ; it 
will surpass the highest expectation." — Expository Times. 

"Nothing could be better than Dr. Nestle's account of the materials which 
New Testament textual criticism has to deal with." — Spectator. 

"We know of no book of its size which can be recommended more cordially 
to the student, alike for general interest and for the clearness of its arrangement. 
. . . In smoothness of rendering, the translation is one of the best we have 
come across for a considerable time." — Manchester Guardian. 



THE APOSTOLIC AGE. By Prof. Carl von Weizsacker. Trans- 
lated by James Millar, B.D. 2 vols. (New Series, Vols. I. and 
V.) Demy 8vo, cloth. Each iar. 6d. 

" Weizsacker is an authority of the very first rank. The present work marks 
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having a masterpiece of this kind rendered accessible to him." — Expository 
Times. 

" . . . No student of theology or of the early history of Christianity can 
afford to leave Weizsacker's great book unread." — Manchester Guardian. 

" In every direction in this work we find the mark of the independent 
thinker and investigator . . . this remarkable volume . . . this able and 
learned work. . . ." — Christian World. 

" The book itself . . . is of great interest, and the work of the translation 
has been done in a most satisfactory way." — Critical Review. 

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CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 7 

THEOLOGICAL TRANSLATION FUND LIBRARY. 

®l& Series, 

Uniform Price per Volume, 6s. 

BAUR (F. C). CHURCH HISTORY OF THE FIRST 
THREE CENTURIES. Translated from the Third German 
Edition. Edited by Rev. Allan Menzies. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 12s. 

PAUL, THE APOSTLE OF JESUS CHRIST, HIS 

LIFE AND WORK, HIS EPISTLES AND DOC- 
TRINE. A Contribution to a Critical History of Primitive 
Christianity. Edited by Rev. Allan Menzies. 2nd Edition. 
2 vols. 8vo, cloth. I2s, 

BLEEK (F.). LECTURES ON THE APOCALYPSE. 

Translated. Edited by the Rev. Dr. S. Davidson. 8vo, cloth. 
6s. 

EWALD'S (Dr. H.) COMMENTARY ON THE PRO- 
PHETS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Translated by 
the Rev. J. F. Smith. [Vol. I. General Introduction, Yoel, Amos, 
Hosea, and Zakharya 9-1 1. Vol. II. Yesaya, Obadya, and Mikah. 
Vol. III. Nahum, Ssephanya, Habaqquq, Zakharya, Yeremya. 
Vol. IV. Hezekiel, Yesaya xl.-lxvi. Vol. V. Haggai, Zakharya, 
Malaki, Jona, Baruc, Daniel, Appendix and Index.] 5 vols. 8vo, 
cloth. 305. 

COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS. Translated by 

the Rev. E. Johnson, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 12s. 

COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF JOB, with 

Translation. Translated from the German by the Rev. J. 
Frederick Smith. 8vo, cloth. 6s. 

HAUSRATH (Prof. A.). HISTORY OF THE NEW 
TESTAMENT TIMES. The Time of Jesus. Translated 
by the Revs. C. T. Poynting and P. Quenzer. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 
1 2 s. 

The second portion of this work, "The Times of the Apostles," 
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KEIM'S HISTORY OF JESUS OF NAZARA : Considered 
in its connection with the National Life of Israel, and 
related in detail. Translated from the German by Arthur Ransom 
and the Rev. E. M. Geldart. [Vol. I. Second Edition. Intro- 
duction, Survey of Sources, Sacred and Political Groundwork. 
Religious Groundwork. Vol. II. The Sacred Youth, Self-recog- 
nition, Decision. Vol. III. The First Preaching, the Works of 

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Jesus, the Disciples, and Apostolic Mission. Vol. IV. Conflicts 
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Vol. V. The Messianic Progress to Jerusalem, the Entry into 
Jerusalem, the Decisive Struggle, the Farewell, the Last Supper. 
Vol. VI. The Messianic Death at Jerusalem. Arrest and Pseudo- 
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Messiah's Place in History, Indices.] Complete in 6 vols. 
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KUENEN (Dr. A.). THE RELIGION OF ISRAEL TO 
THE FALL OF THE JEWISH STATE. By Dr. A. 

Kuenen, Professor of Theology at the University, Leiden. Trans- 
lated from the Dutch by A. H. May. 3 vols. 8vo, cloth. 18^. 

PFLEIDERER (O.). PAULINISM : A Contribution to the 
History of Primitive Christian Theology. Translated by E. 
Peters. 2nd Edition. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 12s. 

PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION ON THE BASIS OF 

ITS HISTORY. (Vols. I. II. History of the Philosophy of 
Religion from Spinoza to the Present Day ; Vols. III. IV. Genetic- 
Speculative Philosophy of Religion.) Translated by Prof. Allan 
Menzies and the Rev. Alex. Stewart. 4 vols. 8vo, cloth. 24J. 

REVILLE (Dr. A.). PROLEGOMENA OF THE HIS- 
TORY OF RELIGIONS. With an Introduction by Prof. 
F. Max Miiller. 8vo, cloth. 6s. 

PROTESTANT COMMENTARY ON THE NEW TES- 
TAMENT. With General and Special Introductions. Edited 
by Profs. P. W. Schmidt and F. von Holzendorff. Translated 
from the Third German Edition by the Rev. F. PI. Jones, B.A. 
3 vols. 8vo, cloth. iSs. 

SCHRADER (Prof. E.). THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIP- 
TIONS AND THE OLD TESTAMENT. Translated 
from the Second Enlarged Edition, with Additions by the Author, 
and an Introduction by the Rev. Owen C. Whitehouse, M.A. 
2 vols. (Vol. I. not sold separately.) With a Map. 8vo, cloth. 
12s. 

ZELLER (Dr. E.). THE CONTENTS AND ORIGIN OF 
THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES CRITICALLY 
INVESTIGATED. Preceded by Dr. Fr. Overbeck's Intro- 
duction to the Acts of the Apostles from De Wette's Handbook. 
Translated by Joseph Dare. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth. 12s. 

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Vol. II. THE VIRGIN BIRTH OF CHRIST: An Historical 
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A.K.C., B.-es-L., Paris. Edited, with an Introduction, by Rev. 
W. D. Morrison, LL.D. Crown 8vo. 31. 

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Vol. IV. LIBERAL CHRISTIANITY: Its Origin, Nature, and 
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Vol. V. WHAT IS CHRISTIANITY? By Adolf Harnack, 
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Vol. VII. EARLY HEBREW STORY. A Study of the Origin, 
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Vol. VIII. BIBLE PROBLEMS AND THE NEW 
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Fellow of the British Academy ; Oriel Professor of Interpretation 
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Vol. IX. THE DOCTRINE OF THE ATONEMENT AND 
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Vol. XL THE CHILD AND RELIGION. Eleven Essays. By 
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Vol. XII. THE EVOLUTION OF RELIGION: An Anthro- 
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Vol. XIII. THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

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Vol. XIV. JESUS. By Wilhelm Bousset, Professor of Theology in 
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"It istrue the writers, von Soden and Bousset, have in the course of their 
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Vol. XV. THE COMMUNION OF THE CHRISTIAN 
WITH GOD. By Prof. Wilhelm Herrmann. Translated from 
the new German Edition by Rev. J. S. Stanyon, M.A., and Rev. 
R. W. Stewart, B.D., B.Sc. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5* 

Vol. XVI. HEBREW RELIGION TO THE ESTABLISH- 
MENT OF JUDAISM UNDER EZRA. By W. E. Addis 
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Vol. XVII. NATURALISM AND RELIGION. By Rudolf 

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Vol. XIX. THE RELIGION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT: 
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Vol. XX. LUKE, THE PHYSICIAN. By Adolf Harnack, D.D. 
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11 What is new and interesting and valuable is the ratiocination, the theorising, 
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Vol. XXI. THE HISTORICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE 
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Vol. XXIII. THE SAYINGS OF JESUS. By Adolf Harnack, 
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THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT. By Rudolf Eucken, Professor 
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THE HIBBERT LECTURES. 

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ALVIELLA (Count GOBLET D'). EVOLUTION OF THE 
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BEARD (Rev. Dr. C). LECTURES ON THE REFORMA- 
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RENAN (E.). ON THE INFLUENCE OF THE INSTITU- 
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CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 15 

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CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 17 

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18 WILLIAMS & NORGATE'S 

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CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 23 

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CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 37 

Volumes already issued — 

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CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 49 



MEMOIRS OF THE LIVERPOOL SCHOOL OF TROPI- 
CAL MEDICINE. 

I. Ross (R.) Malarial Fever : Its Cause, Prevention, 
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II. Ross (R.), H. E. Annett, and E. E. Austen. Report 
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V. Ross (R.) and M. L. Taylor. Progress Reports of 
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VI. [Not issued yet.'] 

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VIII. Taylor (M. L.). Report on the Sanitary Conditions 
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IX. Ross (R.). Report on Malaria at Ismailia and 
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MOISSON (HENRI). THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. 8vo. 
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CATALOGUE OF PUBLICATIONS. 51 

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ANTHROPOLOGY— SOCIOLOGY— MYTHOLOGY- 
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INDEX UNDER AUTHORS & TITLES 



Abbidhanaratnamala. Aufrecht, 33. 
Acland, Sir C. T. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
Acts of the Apostles. Adolf Harnack, 12. 
Addis, W. E. Hebrew Religion, 11. 
iEneidea. James Henry, 56. 
African Tick Fever, 50. 

Agricultural Chemical Analysis. Wiley, 54. 
Alcyonium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
Allin, Rev. Thos. Universalism Asserted, 14. 
Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Contemporar}- 

Evolution of Religious Thought, 14. 
Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Idea of God, 13. 
Americans, The. Hugo Miinsterberg, 22. 
Analysis of Ores. F. C. Phillips, 51. 
Analysis of Theology. E. G. Figg, 17. 
Ancient Arabian Poetry. C. J. Lyall, 34. 
Ancient Assyria, Religion of. Sayce, 14. 
Ancient World, Wall Maps of the, 57. 
Anglican Liberalism, 12. 

Annett, H. E. Malarial Expedition, Nigeria, 49. 
Annotated Catechism, 14. 
Annotated Texts. Goethe, 39. 
Antedon. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
Anthems. R.ev. R. Crompton Jones, 20. 
Anti-Malaria Measures. Rubert Boyce, 44. 
Antiqua Mater. Edwin Johnson, 20. 
Anurida. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
Apocalypse. Bleek, 7, 

Apologetic of the New Test. E. F. Scott, 12. 
Apostle Paul, the, Lectures on. Pfleiderer, 13. 
Apostolic Age, The. Carl von Weizsacker, 6. 
Arabian Poetry, Ancient, 34. 
Arenicola. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
Argument of Adaptation. Rev. G. Henslow, 18. 
Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of. 29. 
Army Series of French and German Novels, 38. 
Ascidia. Johnstone, L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 47. 
Ashworth, J. H. Arenicola, 48. 
Assyrian Dictionary. Norris, 35. 
Assyrian Language, A Concise Dictionary of. 

W. Muss-Arnolt, 35. 
Assyriology, Essay on. George Evans, 34. 
Astigmatic Letters. Dr. Pray, 51. 
Alhanasius of Alexandria, Canons of, 37. 
Atlas Antiquus, Kiepert's, 57. 
Atonement, Doctrine of the. Sabatier, 10. 
At-one-ment, The. Rev. G. Henslow, 18. 
Aufrecht, Dr. T. Abhidhanaratnamala, 33. 
Auf Verlornem Posten. Dewall, 38. 
Autobiography. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times, 55. 
Avesti, Pahlavi. Persian Studies, 33. 

Babel and Bible. Friedrich Delitzsch, 9. 
Bacon, Roger, The "Opus Majus" of, 28. 
Bad Air and Bad Health. Herbert and Wager, 

56. 
Ball, Sir Robert S. Cunningham Memoir, 45. 
Ballads. F. von Schiller, 41. 
Bases of Religious Belief. C. B. Upton, 14, 26. 
Bastian, H. C. Studies in Heterogenesis, 44. 
Baur. Church History, 7 ; Paul, 7. 
Bayldon, Rev. G. Icelandic Grammar, 38. 
Beard, Rev. Dr. C. Universal Christ, 15 ; 

Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, 13. 
Beeby, Rev. C. E. Doctrine and Principles, 15. 



Beet, Prof. J. A. Child and Religion, 10. 

Beginnings of Christianity. Paul Wernle, 4. 

Beliefs about the Bible. M. J. Savage, 24. 

Benedict, F. E. Organic Analysis, 44. 

Bergey, D. G. Practical Hygiene, 44. 

Bernstein and Kirsch. Syriac Chrestomathy, 33. 

Bible. Translated by Samuel Sharpe, 15. 

Bible, Beliefs about, Savage, 24 ; Bible Plants, 
Henslow, 18 ; Bible Problems, Prof. T. K. 
Cheyne, 10 ; How to Teach the, Rev. A. F. 
Mitchell, 21. 

Biblical Hebrew, Introduction to. Rev. Jas. 
Kennedy, 20, 34. 

Biltz, Henry. Methods of Determining Mole- 
cular Weights, 44. 

Biology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
I Blackburn, Helen. Women's Suffrage, 55. 
' Bleek. Apocalypse, 7. 

! Boielle, Jas. French Composition, 40 ; Hugo, 
Les Miserables, 39 ; Notre Dame, 40. 

Bolton. History of the Thermometer, 44. 
; Book of Prayer. Crompton Jones, 20. 
• Books of the New Testament. Von Soden, n. 
I Bousset, Wilhelm. Jesus, n. 

Boyce, Rubert. Anti-Malarial Measures, 49; 
Yellow Fever Prophylaxis, 44, 50 ; Sanita- 
tion at Bathurst, Conakry and Freetown, 49. 

Breinl, A. Animal Reactions of the Spiro- 
chseta of Tick Fever, 50 ; Specific Nature 
of the Spirochaeta of Tick Fever, 50. 

Bremond, Henri. Mystery 7 of Newman, 15. 

Brewster, H. B. The Prison, 28 ; The Statu- 
ette and the Background, 28 ; Anarchy and 
Law, 28. 

British Fisheries. J. Johnstone, 47. 

Broadbent, Rev. T. B. Sermons, 15. 

Brown. Robert. Semitic Influence, Origin of 
the Primitive Constellations, 55 ; Gladstone 
as I Knew Him, 55. 

Bruce, Alex. Topographical Atlas of the 
Spinal Cord, 44. 

Buddha. Prof. H. Oldenberg, 35. 

Burkitt, Prof. F. C. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 

Calculus, Differential and Integral. Harnack, 

46. 
Caldecott, Dr. A. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
Campbell, Rev. Canon Colin. First Three 

Gospels in Greek, 15. 
Cancer. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
Cancer and other Tumours. Chas. Creighton,44. 
Canonical Books of the Old Testament, 2. 
Cape Dutch. J. F. Van Oordt, 41. 
Cape Dutch, Werner's Elementary Lessons in, 

42. 
Cardium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
Carlyle, Rev. A. J. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
Casey, John. Cunningham Memoirs, 45. 
Catalogue of the London Library, 56. 
Cath Ruis Na Rig For Boinn. E. Hogan, 39. 
Celtic Heathendom. Prof. J. Rhys, 14. 
Celtic Studies. Sullivan, 41. 
Centenary History of South Place Society. 

M on cure D. Conway, 16. 
Chadwick, Antedon, 48 ; Echinus, 48. 
Chaldee Language, Manual of. Turpie, 37. 



62 



I N D EX— Continued. 



Channing's Complete Works, 15. 

Chants and Anthems, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and 
Canticles. Crompton Jones, 20. 

Character of the Fourth Gospel. Rev. John 
James Tayler, 25. 

Chemical Dynamics, Studies in. J. H. Van't 
Hoff, 46. 

Chemistry for Beginners. Edward Hart, 46. 

Chemistry of Pottery. Langenbeck, 47. 

Cheyne, Prof. T. K. Bible Problems, 10. 

Child and Religion, The, 10. 

Chondrus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 

Christ no Product of Evolution. Rev. G. 
Henslow, 19. 

Christian Creed, Our, 15. 

Christian Life, Ethics of the, 2. 

Christian Life in the Primitive Church. Dob- 
schiitz, 3. 

Christian Religion, Fundamental Truths of 
the. R. Seeberg, 12. 

Christianity, Beginnings of. Wernle, 4. 

Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. R. 
Travers Herford, 19. 

Christianity? What is. Adolf Harnack, 5. 

Chromium, Production of. Max Leblanc, 47. 

Church History. Baur, 7. Schubert, 3. 

Clark, H. H. Anti-Malaria Measures at Bath- 
urst, 44. 

Closet Prayers. Dr. Sadler, 24. 

Codium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 

Coit, Dr. Stanton. Idealism and State Church, 
16 ; Book of Common Prayer, 16. 

Cole, Frank J. Pleuronectes, 48. 

Collins, F. H. Epitome of Synthetic Philo- 
sophy, 28. 

Coming Church. Dr. John Hunter, 19. 

Commentary on the Book of Job. Ewald, 7 ; 
Commentary on the Book of Job. Wright 
and Hirsch, 27 ; Commentary on the Old 
Testament. Ewald, 7 ; Commentary on the 
Psalms. Ewald, 7 ; Protestant, 8, 24. 

Common Prayer for Christian Worship, 16. 

Communion with God. Herrmann, 5, 11. 

Conductivity of Liquids, 54. 

Confessions of St. Augustine. Harnack, 17. 

Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought. 
Count Goblet D'Alviella, 14. 

Contes Militaires. Daudet, 38. 

Conway, Moncure D. Centenary History, 16. 

Cornill, Carl. Introduction to the Old Testa- 
ment, 2. 

Cosmology of the Rigveda. H. W. Wallis, 37. 

Creighton, Chas. Cancer and other Tumours, 
44 ; Tuberculosis, 45. 

Crucifixion Mystery. J. Vickers, 26. 

Cuneiform Inscriptions, The. Schrader, 8. 

Cunningham Memoirs, 45. 

Cunningham, D. J., M.D. Lumbar Curve in 
Man and the Apes, 45 ; Surface Anatomy 
of the Cerebral Hemispheres. Cunningham 
Memoir, 45. 

Cussans, Margaret. Gammarus, 48. 

Daniel and its Critics; Daniel and his Pro- 
phecies. Rev. C. H. H. Wright, 27. 
Darbishire, Otto V. Chondrus, 48. 
Daudet, A. Contes Militaires, 38. 



Davids, T. W. Rhys. Indian Buddhism, 13. 

Davis, J. R. Ainsworth. Patella, 48. 

Dawning Faith. H. Rix, 23. 

Delbos, L. Nautical Terms, 39. 

Delectus Veterum. Theodor Noldeke, 35. 

Delitzsch, Friedrich. Babel and Bible, 9 ; 
Hebrew Language, 33. 

Democracy and Character. Canon Stephen, 25. 

Denmark in the Early Iron Age. C. Engel- 
hardt, 56. 

De Profundis Clamavi. Dr. John Hunter, 19. 

Descriptive Sociology. Herbert Spencer, 31. 

Development of the Periodic Law. Venable, 54. 

Dewall, Johannes v., Auf Verlornem Posten 
and Nazzarena Danti, 38. 

Dietrichson, L. Monumenta Orcadica, 56. 

Differential and Integral Calculus, The. Axel 
Harnack, 46. 

Dillmann, A. Ethiopic Grammar, 33. 

Dipavamsa, The. Edited by Oldenberg, 33. 

Dirge of Coheleth. Rev. C. Taylor, 25. 

Dobschiitz, Ernst von. Christian Life in the 
Primitive Church, 3, 16. 

Doctrine and Principles. Rev. C. E. Beeby, 15. 

Dogma, History of. Harnack, 18. 

Drey, S. A Theory of Life, 32. 

Driver, S. R. Mosheh ben Shesheth, 16. 

Drummond, Dr. Jas. Character and Author- 
ship of the Fourth Gospel, 16 ; Philo Judaeus, 
28 ; Via, Veritas, Vita, 13. 

Durham, H. E. Yellow Fever Expedition to 
Para, 49. 

Duxham, J. E., and Myers, Walter. Report 
of the Yellow Fever Expedition to Para, 45. 

Dutton, J. E. Vide Memoirs of Liverpool 
School of Tropical Medicine, 49, 50. 

Dutton, J., and Todd. Vide Memoirs of Liver- 
pool School of Tropical Medicine, 45, 49, 50. 

Early Hebrew Story. John P. Peters, 10. 
Early Christian Conception. Pfleiderer, 10. 
Ecclesiastical Institutions of Holland. Rev. 

P. H. Wicksteed, 26. 
Echinus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
Echoes of Holy Thoughts, 17. 
Education. Spencer, 31 ; Lodge, School 

Reform, 40. 
Egyptian Grammar, Erman's, 33. 
Electric Furnace. H. Moisson, 50. 
Electrolysis of Water. V. Engelhardt, 46. 
Electrolytic Laboratories. Nissenson, 50. 
ElementaryOrganic Analysis. F.E.Benedict, 44. 
Engelhardt, C. Denmark in Iron Age, 56. 
Engelhardt, V. Electrolysis of Water, 46. 
Engineering Chemistry. T. B. Stillman, 53. 
England and Germany. Erich Marcks, 58. 
English Culture, Rise of. E. Johnson, 57. 
English-Danish Dictionary. S. Rosing, 41. 
English-Icelandic Dictionary. Zoega, 43. 
Enoch, Book of. C. Gill, 17. 
Epitome of Synthetic Philosophy. Collins, 28. 
Epizootic Lymphangitis. Capt. Pallin, 51. 
Erman's Egyptian Grammar, 33. 
Erzahlungen. Hofer, 38. 
Espin, Rev. T., M.A. The Red Stars, 45. 
Essays on the Social Gospel. Harnack and 

Herrmann, 11. 



I N DEX— Continued. 



63 



Essays. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
Ethica. Prof. Simon Laurie, 28. 
Ethical Import of Darwinism. Schurman, 29. 
Ethics, Data of. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
Ethics, Early Christian. Prof. Scullard, 24. 
Ethics, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
Ethiopic Grammar. A. Dillmann, 33. 
Eucken, Prof. Life of the Spirit, 12. 
Eugene's Grammar of French Language, 39. 
Evans, A. Anti-Malaria Measures at Bath- 

urst, etc., 44. 
Evans, George. Essay on Assyriology, 34. 
Evolution, A New Aspect of. Formby, 17. 
Evolution, Christ no Product of, 19. 
Evolution of Christianity. C. Gill, 17. 
Evolution of Knowledge. R. S. Perrin, 22. 
Evolution of Religion, The. L. R. Farnell, 11. 
Ewald. Commentary on Job, 7 ; Commentary 

on the Old Testament, 7 ; Commentary on 

the Psalms, 7. 

Facts and Comments. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
Faith and Morals. W. Herrmann, 10. 
Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh, B.D. A Moslem 

Present ; Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetr}-, 34. 
Farnell, L. R. The Evolution of Religion, n. 
Fertilizers. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 

.54- 

Figg, E. G. Analysis of Theology, 17. 

First Principles. Herbert Spencer, 30. 

First Three Gospels in Greek. Rev. Canon 
Colin Campbell, 15. 

Flinders Petrie Papyri. Cunn. Memoirs, 34. 

Formby, Rev. C. W. Re-Creation, 17. 

Four Gospels as Historical Records, 17. 

Fourth Gospel. Character and Authorship of, 16. 

Frankfurter, Dr. O. Handbook of Pali, 34. 

Free Catholic Church. Rev. J. M. Thomas, 26. 

Freezing Point, The, Jones, 47. 

French Composition. Jas. Boielle, 39. 

French History, First Steps in. F. F. Roget, 41 . 

French Language, Grammar of. Eugene, 39. 

Fuerst, Dr. Jul. Hebrew and Chaldee Lexi- 
con, 34. 

Gammarus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 

Gardner, Prof. Percy. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 

General Language of the Incas of Peru, 40. 

Genesis, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C. 
H. H. Wright, 27. 

Genesis, Hebrew Text, 34. 

Geometry, Analytical, Elements of. Hardy, 46. 

German Idioms, Short Guide to. Weiss, 42. 

German Literature, A Short Sketch of. V. 
Phillipps, B.A., 41. 

German, Systematic Conversational Exercises 
in. T. H. Weiss, 42. 

Gibson, R. J. Harvey. Codium, 48. 

Giles, Lt.-Col. Anti-Malarial Measures in 
Sekondi. etc., 49. 

Gill, C. Book of Enoch ; Evolution of Chris- 
tianity, 17. 

Gladstone as I Knew Him. Robert Brown, 55. 

Glimpses of Tennyson. A. G. Weld. 59. 

Goethe, W. v. Annotated Texts, 39. 

Goldammer, H. The Kindergarten, 56. 

Gospels in Greek, First Three, 15. 



Greek Ideas, Lectures on. Rev. Dr. Hatch, 13. 
Greek, Modern, A Course of. Zompolides, 43. 
Greek New Testament, 6. 
Green, Rev. A. A. Child and Religion, 10. 
Gulistan, The (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi ot 

Shiraz, 36. 
Gymnastics, Medical Indoor. Dr. Schreber, 52. 

Haddon, A. C. Decorative Art of British 
Guinea, Cunningham Memoir, 45. 

Hagmann, J. G., Ph.D. Reform in Primary 
Education, 39. 

Handley, Rev. H. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 

Hantzsch, A. Elements of Stereochemistry, 46. 

Hardy. Elements of Analytical Geometry, 46 ; 
Infinitesimals and Limits, 46. 

Harnack, Adolf. Acts of the Apostles, 12 ; 
History of Dogma, 4 ; Letter to the " Preus- 
sische Jahrbucher," 18 ; Luke the Physician, 
12 ; Mission and Expansion of Christianity, 
3; Monasticism, 17 ; The Sayings of Jesus, 
12 ; What is Christianity? 5, 10. 

Harnack, Adolf, and Herrmann, W. Essays 
on the Social Gospel, n. 

Harnack and his Oxford Critics. Saunders, 24. 

Harnack, Axel. Differential and Integral 
Calculus, 46. 

Harrison, A. Women's Industries, 56. 

Hart, Edward, Ph.D. Chemistry for Begin- 
ners, 46 ; Second Year Chemistry, 46. 

Hatch, Rev. Dr. Lectures on Greek Ideas, 13. 

Haughton, Rev. Samuel, M.A., M.D. New 
Researches on Sun-Heat, 45. 

Hausrath. History of the New Test. Times, 7. 

Head, Sir Edmund, translated by. Viga 
Glums Saga, 42. 

Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon. Dr. Fuerst, 34. 

Hebrew Language, The. F. Delitzsch, 33. 

Hebrew, New School of Poets, 35. 

Hebrew Religion. W. E. Addis, n. 

Hebrew Story. Peters, 10. 

Hebrew Texts, 18. 

Henry, Jas. iEneidea, 56. 

Henslow, Rev. G. The Argument of Adapta- 
tion, 18 ; The At-one-ment, 18 ; Christ no 
Product of Evolution, 19 ; Spiritual Teach- 
ings of Bible Plants, 18 ; Spiritual Teaching 
of Christ's Life, 19 ; The Vulgate, 19. 

Henson, Rev. Canon Hensley. Child and 
Religion, 10. 

Herbert, Hon. A. Sacrifice of Education. 56. 

Herbert, Hon. A., and Wager, H. Bad Air 
and Bad Health, 56. 

Herdman, Prof. W. A. Ascidia, 47. 

Herford, R. Travers, B.A. Christianity in 
Talmud and Midrash, 19. 

Herrmann, W. Communion, 5, n ; Faith and 
Morals, 10. 

Herrmann and Harnack. Essays on the Social 
Gospel, n. 

Heterogenesis, Studies in. H. Bastian, 44. 

Hewitt, C. Gordon. Ligia, 48. 

Hibbert Journal, The, 19. 

Hibbert, Lectures, The, 13, 14. 

Hickson, Sydney J. Alcyonium, 48. 

Hill, Rev. Dr. G. Child and Religion, 10. 

Hindu Chemistry. Prof. P. C. Ray, 51. 



6 4 



INDEX— Continued. 



Hirsch, Dr. S. A., and W. Aldis Wright, 

edited by. Commentary on Job, 27. 
History of the Church. Hans von Schubert, 3. 
History of Dogma. Adolf Harnack, 4. 
History of Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 7. 
History of the Hebrews. R. Kittel, 5. 
History of the Literature of the O.T. Kautzsch, 

20. 
History of the New Test. Times. Hausrath, 7. 
Hodgson, S. H. Philosophy and Experience, 

28 ; Reorganisation of Philosophy, 28. 
Hoerning, Dr. R. The Karaite MSS., 19. 
Hofer, E. Erzahlungen, 38. 
Hoff, J. H. Van't. Chemical Dynamics, 46. 
Hogan, E. Cath Ruis Na Rig For Boinn, 39 ; 

Latin Lives, 39 ; Irish Nennius, 39. 
Horner, G. Statutes, The, of the Apostles, 36. 
Horse, Life-Size Models of. J. T. Share Jones, 47; 

the, Surgical Anatomy of, 47. 
Horton, Dr. R. Child and Religion, 10. 
Howe, J. L. Inorganic Chemistry, 46. 
How to Teach the Bible. Mitchell, 21. 
Hugo, Victor. Les Miserables, 39 ; Notre 

Dame, 40. 
Human Sternum, The. A. M. Paterson, 51. 
Human Tick Fever, Nature of. J. E. Dutton 

and J. L. Todd, 46. 
Hunter, Dr. John. De Profundis Clamavi, 19 ; 

The Coming Church, 19. 
Hygiene, Handbook of. Bergey, 44. 
Hymns of Duty and Faith. Jones, 20. 

Icelandic Grammar. Rev. G. Bayldon, 38. 
Idea of God. Alviella, Count Goblet D', 13. 
Imms, A. D. Anurida, 48. 
Incarnate Purpose, The. Percival, 22. 
Indian Buddhism. Rhys Davids, 13. 
Individualism and Collectivism. Dr. C. W. 

Saleeby, 29. 
Indoor Gymnastics, Medical, 52. 
Industrial Remuneration, Methods of. D. F. 

Schloss, 58. 
Infinitesimals and Limits. Hardy, 46. 
Inflammation Idea. W. H. Ransom, 51. 
Influence of Rome on Christianity. Renan, 13. 
Inorganic Chemistry. J. L. Howe, 46. 
Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 

Leavenworth, 47. 
Introduction to the Greek New Test. Nestle, 6. 
Introduction to the Old Test. Cornill, 2. 
Irish Nennius, The. E. Hogan, 39. 
Isaiah, Hebrew Text, 34. 
Ismailia, Malarial Measures at. Boyce, 49. 

Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 7. 

Jesus. Wilhelm Bousset, n. 

Jesus, Sayings of. Harnack, 18. 

Jesus, The Real. Vickers, 26. 

Job, Book of. G. H. Bateson Wright, 27. 

Job, Book of. Rabbinic Commentary on, 37. 

Job. Hebrew Text, 34. 

Johnson, Edwin, M.A. Antiqua Mater, 20 ; 

English Culture, 20 ; Rise of Christendom, 19. 
Johnstone, J. British Fisheries, 47 ; Cardium, 

48. 
Jones, Prof. Henry. Child and Religion, 10. 
Jones, Rev. J. C. Child and Religion, 10. 



Jones, Rev. R. Crompton. Hymns of Duty 

and Faith, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and Canticles, 

20 ; Anthems, 20 ; The Chants and Anthems, 

20 ; A Book ol Prayer, 20. 
Jones, J. T. Share. Life-Size Models of the 

Horse, 47 ; Surgical Anatomy of the Horse, 

47- 
Jones. The Freezing Point, 47. 
Journal of the Federated Malay States, 60. 
Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany and 

Zoology, 47, 60. 
Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club, 

47, 60. 
Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, 

47, 60. 
Justice. Herbert Spencer, 31. 

Kantian Ethics. J. G. Schurman, 29. 

Karaite MSS. Dr. R. Hoerning, 19. 

Kautzsch, E. History of the Literature of the 
Old Testament, 20. 

Keim. History of Jesus of Nazara, 7. 

Kennedy, Rev. Jas. Introduction to Biblical 
Hebrew, 34 ; Hebrew Synonyms, 34. 

Kiepert's New Atlas Antiquus, 57. 

Kiepert's Wall-Maps of the Ancient World, 57. 

Kindergarten, The. H. Goldammer, 56. 

Kittel, R. _ History of the Hebrews, 5. 

Knight, edited by. Essays on Spinoza, 32. 

Knowledge, Evolution of. Perrin, 22. 

Kuenen, Dr. A. National Religions and Uni- 
versal Religion, 13 ; Religion of Israel, 8. 

Laboratory Experiments. Noyes and Mulli- 

ken, 51. 
Ladd, Prof. G. T. Child and Religion, 10. 
Lake, Kirsopp. Resurrection, 12. 
Landolt, Hans. Optical Rotating Power, 47. 
Langenbeck. The Chemistry of Pottery, 47. 
Latin Lives of the Saints. E. Hogan, 39. 
Laurie, Prof. Simon. Ethica, 28 ; Meta- 

physica Nova et Vetusta, 28. 
Lea, Henry Chas. Sacerdotal Celibacy, 21. 
Leabhar Breac, 40. 
Leabhar Na H-Uidhri, 40. 
Leavenworth, ^ Prof. W. S. Inorganic Quali- 
tative Chemical Analysis, 47. 
Leblanc, Dr. Max. The Production of 

Chromium, 47. 
Le Coup de Pistolet. Merimee, 38. 
Lepeophtheirus and Lernea. Vide L.M.B.C. 

Memoirs, 48. 
Letter to the " Preussische Jahrbucher." 

Adolf Harnack, 18. 
Lettsom, W. N., trans, by. Nibelungenlied, 

40. 
Liberal Christianity. Jean Reville, 10. 
Life and Matter. Sir O. Lodge, 21. 
Life of the Spirit, The. Eucken, 12. 
Lilja. Edited by E. Magnusson, 40. 
Lilley, Rev. A. L. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
Lineus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 
Linnean Society of London, Journals of, 60. 
Liverpool, A History of. Muir, 58. 
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs, 

I.— XVI., 47. 



I N D EX— Continued. 



65 



Liverpool, Municipal Government in. Muir 

and Piatt, 58. 
Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine 

Memoirs, 49. 
Lobstein, Paul. Virgin Birth of Christ, 9. 
Lodge, Sir O. Life and Matter, 21 ; School 

Teaching and School Reform, 40. 
Logarithmic Tables. Sang, 52 ; Schroen, 53. 
London Library, Catalogue of, 56. 
Long, J. H. A Text-book of Urine Analysis, 

48. 
Luke the Physician. Adolf Harnack, 12. 
Lyall, C. J., M.A. Ancient Arabian Poetry, 

34- 

Macan, R. W. The Resurrection of Jesus 

Christ, 21. 
Machberoth Ithiel. Thos. Chenery, 35. 
Mackay, R. W. Rise and Progress of Chris- 
tianity, 21. 
Mackenzie, Malcolm. Social and Political 

Dynamics, 28. 
Magnusson, edited by. Lilja, 40. 
Mahabharata, Index to. S. Sorensen, 36. 
Mahaffy, J. P., D.D. Flinders Petrie Papyri. 

Cunningham Memoirs, 45. 
Malaria Expedition to Nigeria, Report of. 

Annett, Dutton, and Elliott, 44. 
Man versus the State. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
Maori, Lessons in. Right Rev. W. L. 

Williams, 43. 
Maori, New and Complete Manual of, 40. 
Marchant, James. Theories of the Resurrec- 
tion, 21. 
Marcks, Erich. England and Germany, 58. 
Markham, Sir Clements, K.C.B. Vocabularies 

of the Incas of Peru, 40. 
Martineau, Rev. Dr. James. Modern 

Materialism, 21 ; Relation between Ethics 

and Religion, 21. 
Mason, Prof. W. P. Notes on Qualitative 

Analysis, 48. 
Massoretic Text. Rev. Dr. J. Taylor, 25. 
Masterman, C. F. G. Child and Religion, 10. 
Meade, R. K., Portland Cement, 48. 
Mediaeval Thought, History of. R. Lane 

Poole, 22. 
Memoirs of the Liverpool School of Tropical 

Medicine, 49, 50. 
Menegoz, E. Religion and Theology, 21. 
Mercer, Right Rev. J. Edward, D.D. Soul 

of Progress, 21. 
Merimee, Prosper. Le Coup de Pistolet, 38. 
Metallic Objects, Production of. Dr. W. 

Pfanhauser, 51. 
Metallurgy. Wysor, 54. 
Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta. Prof. Simon 

Laurie, 28. 
Midrash, Christianity in. Herford, 19. 
Milanda Panho, The. Edited by V. 

Trenckner, 35. 
Mission and Expansion of Christianity. Adolf 

Harnack, 3. 
Mitchell, Rev. A. F. How to Teach the 

Bible, 21. 
Modern Materialism. Rev. Dr. James 

Martineau, 21. 



Moisson, Henri. Electric Furnace, 50. 
Molecular Weights, Methods of Determining. 

Henry Biltz, 44. 
Monasticism. Adolf Harnack, 17. 
Montefiore, C. G. Religion of the Ancient 

Hebrews, 13. 
Monumenta Orcadica. L. Dietrichson, 56. 
Moorhouse Lectures. Vide Mercer's Soul of 

Progress, 21 ; Stephen, Democracy and 

Character, 25. 
Morrison, Dr. W. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 
Mosheh ben Shesheth. S. R. Driver. Edited 

by, 16. 
Moslem Present. Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh, 

B.D., 34- 
Muir and Piatt. History of Municipal 

Government in Liverpool, 58. 
Muir, Prof. Ramsay. History of Liverpool, 58. 
Miinsterberg, Hugo. The Americans, 22. 
Muss-Arnolt, W. A Concise Dictionary of 

the Assyrian Language, 35. 
My Struggle for Light. R. Wimmer, 9. 
Mystery of Newman. Henri Bremond, 15. 

National Idealism and State Church, 16 ; and 

the Book of Common Prayer, 16. 
National Religions and Universal Religion. 

Dr. A. Kuenen, 13. 
Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. Dr. A. 

Reville, 14. 
Naturalism and Religion. Dr. Rudolf Otto, 

22. 
Nautical Terms. L. Delbos, 39. 
Nestle. Introduction to the Greek New Test., 6. 
New Hebrew School of Poets. Edited by H. 

Brody and K. Albrecht, 35. 
Newstead, R. Another New Dermanyssid 

Acarid, 50; Newstead, R., and J. L. Todd. 

A New Dermanyssid Acarid, 50. 
New Zealand Language, Dictionary of. Rt. 

Rev. W. L. Williams, 42. 
Nibelungenlied. Trans. W. L. Lettsom, 40. 
Nissenson. Arrangements of Electrolytic 

Laboratories, 50. 
Noldeke, Theodor. Delectus Veterum, 35 ; 

Syriac Grammar, 35. 
Norris, E. Assyrian Dictionary, 35. 
Norseman in the Orkneys. Dietrichson, 56. 
Noyes, A. A. Organic Chemistry, 51. 
Noyes, A. A., and Milliken, Samuel. Labora- 
tory Experiments, 51. 

O'Grady, Standish, H. Silva Gadelica, 41. 
Old and New Certainty of the Gospel. Alex. 

Robinson, 23. 
Oldenberg, Dr. H., edited by. Dipavamsa, 

The, 33 ; Vinaya Pitakam, 37. 
Old French, Introduction to. F. F. Roget, 41. 
Oordt, J. F. Van, B.A. Cape Dutch, 41. 
Ophthalmic Test Types. Snellen's, 53. 
Optical Rotating Power. Hans Landolt, 47. 
" Opus Majus" of Roger Bacon, 28. 
Organic Chemistry. A. A. Noyes, 51. 
Otia Merseiana, 58. 

Otto, Rudolf. Naturalism and Religion, n. 
Outlines of Church History. Von Schubert, 3. 
Outlines of Psychology. Wilhelm Wundt, 32. 



66 



Pali, Handbook of. Dr. O. Frankfurter, 34. 

Pali Miscellany. V. Trenckner, 35 

Pallin, Capt. W. A. A Treatise on Epizootic 
Lymphangitis, 51. 

Parker, W. K., F.R.S. Morphology of the 
Duck Tribe and the Auk Tribe, 45. 

Patella. Vide L.M.B.C, Memoirs, 48. 

Paterson, A. M. The Human Sternum, 51. 

Paul. Baur, 7; Pfleiderer, 13; Weinel, 3. 

Paulinism. Pfleiderer, 8. 

Pearson, Joseph. Cancer, 48. 

Peddie, R. A. Printing at Brescia, 58. 

Percival, G. H. The Incarnate Purpose, 22. 

Perrin, R. S. Evolution of Knowledge, 22. 

Persian Language, A Grammar of. J. T. 
Platts, 36. 

Peters, Dr. John P. Early Hebrew Story, 10. 

Pfanhauser, Dr. W. Production of Metallic 
Objects, 51. 

Pfleiderer, Otto. Early Christian Conception, 
10; Lectures on Apostle Paul, 13 ; Paulinism, 
8 ; Philosophy of Religion, 8 ; Primitive 
Christianity, 2. 

Phillips, F. C. Analysis of Ores, 51. 

Phillipps, V., B.A. Short Sketch of German 
Literature, 41. 

Philo Judaeus. Dr. Drummond, 16. 

Philosophy and Experience. Hodgson, 28. 

Philosophy of Religion. Pfleiderer, 8. 

Piddington, H. Sailors' Horn Book, 51. 

Pikler, Jul. Psychology of the Belief in 
Objective Existence, 29. 

Platts, J. T. A Grammar of the Persian 
Language, 36. 

Pleuronectes. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. 

Pocket Flora of Edinburgh. C. O. Sonntag, 53. 

Poole, Reg. Lane. History of Mediaeval 
Thought, 22. 

Portland Cement. Meade, 48. 

Pray, Dr. Astigmatic Letters, 51. 

Prayers for Christian Worship. Sadler, 24. 

Prehistoric Times. Lord Avebury, 55. 

Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry. Shaikh Faizul- 
lah-Bhai, B.D., 34. 

Primitive Christianity. Otto Pfleiderer, 2. 

Primitive Constellations, Origin of. Robt. 
Brown, 55. 

Printing at Brescia. R. A. Peddie, 58. 

Prison, The. H. B. Brewster, 28. # " 

Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 29. 

Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 51. 

Prolegomena. Reville, 8. 

Protestant Commentary on the New Testa- 
ment, 8, 23. 

Psalms, Hebrew Text, 34. 

Psychology of the Belief in Objective Exist- 
ence. Jul. Pikler, 29. 

Psychology, Principles of, Spencer, 30 ; Out- 
lines of, Wundt, 32. 

Punnett, R. C. Lineus, 48. 

Qualitative Analysis, Notes on. Prof. W. P. 
Mason, 48. 

Ransom, W. H. The Inflammation Idea, 51. 
Rapport sur l'Expedition au Congo. Dutton 
and Todd, 45. 



INDEX— Continued. 

Rashdall, Dr. Hastings. Anglican Liberalism, 






Ray, Prof. P. C. Hindu Chemistry, 51. 

Real Jesus, The. J. Vickers, 26. 

Reasons for Dissenting from the Philosophy of 

M. Comte. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
Re-Creation. Rev. C. W. Formby, 17. 
Reform in Primary Education. J. G. Hag- 

mann, 39. 
Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Rev. 

Dr. C. Beard, 15. 
Rejoinder to Prof. Weismann, 31. 
Relation between Ethics and Religion. Rev. 

Dr. James Martineau, 21. 
Religion and Modern Culture. Sabatier, 10. 
Religion and Theology. E. M£negoz, 21. 
Religion of Ancient Egypt. Renouf, 14. 
Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. C. G. 

Montefiore, 13. 
Religion of Israel. Kuenen, 8. 
Religions of Ancient Babylonia and Assyria. 

Prof. A. H. Sayce, 36. 
Religions of Authority and the Spirit. Auguste 

Sabatier, 3. 
Renan, E. Influence of Rome on Christianity, 

13. 
Renouf, P. L. Religion of Ancient Egypt, 

Reorganisation of Philosophy. Hodgson, 28. 
Report of Malarial Expedition to Nigeria, 44. 
Report of the Yellow Fever Expedition to 

Para, 1900. Durham and Myers, 49. 
Reports on the Sanitation and Anti- Malarial 

Measures at Bathurst, 44. 
Reports of Thompson-Yates Laboratories, 52. 
Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Lake, 20 ; 

R. W. Macan, 21 ; Marchant, 21. 
Reville, Dr. A. Native Religions of Mexico 

and Peru, 14. 
Reville. Prolegomena, 8. 
Reville, Jean. Liberal Christianity, 10. 
Rhys, Prof. J. Celtic Heathendom, 14, 
Rise and Progress of Christianity. R. W. 

Mackay, 21. 
Rise of Christendom. Edwin Johnson, 19. 
Rise of English Culture. Edwin Johnson, 20. 
Rix, Herbert. Dawning Faith, 22 ; Tent and 

Testament, 22. 
Robinson, Alex. Old and New Certainty of 

the Gospel, 23 ; Study of the Saviour, 23. 
Roget, F. F. First Steps in French History, 

41 ; Introduction to Old French, 41. 
Rosing, S. English-Danish Dictionary, 41. _ 
Ross, R. Campaign against Mosquitos in 

Sierra Leone, 49 ; Malaria at Ismailia and 

Suez, 49; Malarial Expedition to Sierra 

Leone, 49 ; Malarial Fever, 49. 
Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs and 

Monthly Notices, 60. 
Royal Dublin Society. Transactions and 

Proceedings, 60. 
Royal Irish Academy. Transactions and 

Proceedings, 60. 
Royal Society of Edinburgh. Transactions 

of, 60. 
Runcorn Research Laboratories. Parasite of 

Tick Fever, 50. 



INDEX— Continued. 



67 



Runes, The. Geo. Stephens, 58. 

Runic Monuments, Old Northern. Geo. 

Stephens, 58. 
Ruth, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C. H. 

H. Wright, 27. 

Sabatier, Auguste. Doctrine of the Atone- 
ment, 10 ; Religions of Authority and the 
Spirit, 3. 

Sacerdotal Celibacy. Henry Chas. Lea, 21. 

Sacrifice of Education. Hon. A. Herbert, 56. 

Sadi. The Gulistan (Rose Garden) of Shaik 
Sadi of Shiraz, 36. 

Sadler, Rev. Dr. Closet Prayers, 24 ; Prayers 
for Christian Worship, 24. 

Sailors' Horn Book. H. Piddington, 51. 

Saleeby, C. W. Individualism and Collec- 
tivism, 29. 

Sang's Logarithms, 52. 

Sanitary Conditions of Cape Coast Town. 
Taylor, M. L., 49. 

Sanitation and Anti - Malarial Measures. 
Lt.-Col. Giles, 46. 

Saunders, T. B. Harnack and hib Critics, 24. 

Savage, M. J. Beliefs about the Bible, 24. 

Sayce, Prof. A. H. Religion of Ancient 
Assyria, 14. 

Sayings of Jesus, The. Adolf Harnack, 12. 

Schiller. Ballads, 41. 

Schloss, D. F. Methods of Industrial Re- 
muneration, 58. 

School Teaching and School Reform. Sir O. 
Lodge, 40. 

Schrader. The Cuneiform Inscriptions, 8. 

Schreber, D. G. M. Medical Indoor Gym- 
nastics, 52. 

Schroen, L. Seven-Figure Logarithms, 53. 

Schubert, Hansvon. History of the Church, 3. 

Schurman, J. Gould. Ethical Import of 
Darwinism, 29 ; Kantian Ethics, 29. 

Scott, Andrew. Lepeophtheirus and Lernea, 
48. 

Scott, E. F. Apologetic of the New Test., 12. 

Scripture, Edward W., Ph.D. Studies from 
the Yale Psychological Laboratory, 29. 

Second Year Chemistry. Edward Hart, 46. 

Seeberg, R. Fundamental Truths of the 
Christian Religion, 12. 

Seger. Collected Writings, 53. 

Semitic Influence. Robt. Brown, 55. 

Seven-Figure Logarithms. L. Schroen, 53. 

Severus, Patriarch of Antioch. Letters of, 25. 

Sharpe, Samuel. Bible, translated by, 15. 

Shearman, A. T. Symbolic Logic, 29. 

Shihab Al Din. Futuh Al-Habashah. Ed. 
by S. Strong, 36. 

Short History of the Hebrew Text. T. H. 
Weir, 16. 

Sierra Leone, Campaign against Mosquitoes in. 
Ross and Taylor, 49. 

Sierra Leone, The Malarial Expedition to, 
1899. Ross, Annett, and Austen, 49. 

Silva Gadelica. Standish H. O'Grady, 41. 

Sleeping Sickness, Distribution and Spread 
of, 50. 

Smith, Martin R. What I Have Taught My 
Children, 25. 



Snellen's Ophthalmic Test Types, 53. 
Snyder, Harry. Soils and Fertilisers, 53. 
Social and Political Dynamics. Malcolm 

Mackenzie, 28. 
Social Gospel, Essays on the, n. 
Social Statics. Herbert Spencer, 31. 
Sociology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. 
Sociology, Study of. Herbert Spencer, 31. 

Soden, H. von, D.D. Books of the New 
Testament, n. 

Soils and Fertilisers. Snyder, 53. 

Soils. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 54. 

Sonntag, C. O. A Pocket Flora of Edin- 
burgh, 53. 

Sorensen, S. Index to the Mahabharata, 36. 

Soul of Progress. Bishop Mercer, 21. 

Spanish Dictionary, Larger. Velasquez, 42. 

Spencer, Herbert. Drey on Herbert Spencer's 
Theory of Religion and Morality, 32. 

Spencer, Herbert. An Autobiography, 30 ; 
A System of Synthetic Philosophy, 30; De- 
scriptive Sociology, Nos. 1-8, 31 ; Works by, 
30-32 ; Theory of Religion and Morality, 32. 

Spinal Cord, Topographical Atlas of. Alex. 
Bruce, M.A., etc., 44. 

Spinoza. Edited by Prof. Knight, 32. 

Spiritual Teachingof Christ's Life, Henslow, 18. 

Statuette, The, and the Background. H. B. 
Brewster, 28. 

Statutes, The, of the Apostles. G. Horner, 
25, 36. 

Stephen, Canon. Democracy and Character, 25. 

Stephens, Geo. Bugge's Studies on Northern 
Mythology Examined, 58 ; Old Northern 
Runic Monuments, 58 ; The Runes, 58. 

Stephens, J. W. W. Study of Malaria, 53. 

Stephens, _ Thos., B.A., Editor. The Child 
and Religion, 10. 

Stephens and R. Newstead. Anatomy of the 
Proboscis of Biting Flies, 50. 

Stereochemistry, Elements of. Hantzsch, 46. 

Stewart, Rev. C. R. S. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 

Stillman, T. B. Engineering Chemistry, 53. 

Storms. Piddington, 51. 

Strong, S. Arthur, ed. by. Shihab Al Din, 36. 

Study of the Saviour. Alex. Robinson, 23. 

Studies on Northern Mythology. Geo. 
Stephens, 58. 

Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory. 
Edward W. Scripture, Ph.D., 29. 

Sullivan, W. K. Celtic Studies, 41. 

Surgical Anatomy of the Horse. J. T. Share 
Jones, 47. 

Symbolic Logic. A. T. Shearman, 29. 

Synthetic Philosophy, Epitome of. F. H. 
Collins, 32. 

Syriac Chrestomathy. Bernstein and Kirsch, 
33- 

Syriac Grammar. Theodor Noldeke, 35. 

System of Synthetic Philosophy. Herbert 
Spencer, 30. 

Tayler, Rev. John James. Character of the 

Fourth Gospel, 25. 
Taylor, Rev. C. Dirge of Coheleth, The, 25. 
Taylor, Rev. Dr. J. Massoretic Text, 25. 



68 



INDEX— Continued. 



Taylor. Sanitary Conditions of Cape Coast 

Town, 49. 
Ten Services and Psalms and Canticles, 25. 
Ten Services of Public Prayer, 25-26. 
Tennant, Rev. F. R. Child and Religion, 10. 
Tent and Testament. Herbert Rix, 23. 
Testament, Old. Canonical Books of, 2 ; Re- 
ligions of, n ; Cuneiform Inscriptions, 24 ; 

Hebrew Text, Weir, 26 ; Literature, 20. 
Testament, The New, Critical Notes on. C. 

Tischendorf, 26, 27. 
Testament Times, New. Acts of the Apostles, 

12; Apologetic of, 12; Books of the, 11; 

Commentary, Protestant, 8 ; History of, 7 ; 

Luke the Physician, 12 ; Textual Criticism, 6 ; 
Test Types. Pray, 51 ; Snellen, 53. 
Text and Translation Society, Works by, 36. 
Theories of Anarchy and of Law. H. B. 

Brewster, 28. 
Theories of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. 

James Marchant, 21. 
Thermometer, History of the. Bolton, 44. 
Thomas, Rev. J. M. L. A Free Catholic 

Church, 26. 
Thomas and Breinl. Trypanosomiasis and 

Sleeping Sickness, 50. 
Thornton, Rev. J. J. Child and Religion, 10. 
Tischendorf, C. The New Testament, 26. 
Todd Lectures Series, 41, 42. 
Tower, O. F. Conductivity of Liquids, 54. 
Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 54. 
Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, 54. 
Transactions of the Royal Societyof Edinburgh, 

54- 
Trenckner, V. Pali Miscellany, 35. 
Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia. 

J. E. Dutton and J. L. Todd, 45, 49. 
Turpie, Dr. D. M'C. Manual of the Chaldee 

Language, 37. 

Universal Christ. Rev. Dr. C. Beard, 15. 
Universalism Asserted. Rev. Thos. Allin, 14. 
Upton, Rev. C. B. Bases of Religious Belief, 14. 
Urine Analysis, A Text-Book of. Long, 48. 

Vaillante, Vincent, 38. 

Various Fragments. Herbert Spencer, 31. 

Vega. Logarithmic Tables, 54. 

Veiled Figure, The, 59. 

Velasquez. Larger Spanish Dictionary, 42. 

Venable, T. C. Development of the Periodic 
Law, 54 ; Study of Atom, 54. 

Via, Veritas, Vita. Dr. Drummond, 13. 

Vickers, J. The Real Jesus, 26 ; The Cruci- 
fixion Mystery, 26. 

Viga Glums Saga. Sir E. Head, 42. 

Vinaya Pitakam. Dr. Oldenberg, 37. 

Vincent, Jacques. Vaillante, 38. 



Virgin Birth of Christ. Paul Lobstein, 9. 
Vulgate, The. Henslow, 19. 
Vynne and Blackburn. Women under the 
Factory Acts, 59. 

Wallis, H. W. Cosmology of the Rigveda, 37. 

Was Israel ever in Egypt? G. H. B. Wright, 27. 

Weir, T. H. Short History of the Hebrew 
Text, 26. 

Weisse, T. H. Elements of German, 42 ; Short 
Guide to German Idioms, 42 ; Systematic 
Conversational Exercises in German, 42. 

Weizsacker, Carl von. The Apostolic Age, 6. 

Weld, A. G. Glimpses of Tennyson, 59. 

Werner's Elementary Lessons in Cape Dutch, 
42. 

Wernle, Paul. Beginnings of Christianity, 4. 

What I Have Taught my Children. Martin 
R. Smith, 25. 

What is Christianity ? Adolf Harnack, 5, 10. 

Wicksteed, Rev. P. H. Ecclesiastical Institu- 
tions of Holland, 26. 

Wiley, Harvey W. Agricultural Chemical 
Analysis, 54. 

Wilkinson, Rev. J. R. Anglican Liberalism, 
12. 

Williams, Right. Rev. W. L., D.C.L. Diction- 
ary of the New Zealand Language, 42. 

Williams, Right Rev. W. L., D.C.L. Lessons 
in Maori, 42. 

Wimmer, R. My Struggle for Light, 9. 

Women under the Factory Acts, Vynne and 
Blackburn, 59. 

Women's Industries. A. Harrison, 56. 

Women's Suffrage. Helen Blackburn, 5s. 

Woods, Dr. H. G. Anglican Liberalism, 12. 

Wright, Rev. C. H. H. Book of Genesis in 
Hebrew Text, 27 ; Book of Ruth in Hebrew 
Text, 27 ; Daniel and its Critics, 27 ; Daniel 
and his Prophecies, 27 ; Light from Egyptian 
Papyri, 27. 

Wright, G. H. Bateson. Book of Job, 27 ; 
Was Israel ever in Egypt? 27. 

Wright, W., and Dr. Hirsch, edited by. Com- 
mentary on the Book of Job, 27. 

Wundt, Wilhelm. Outlines of Psychology, 32. 

Wysor. Metallurgy, 54. 

Yale Psychological Laboratory, Studies from, 

32. 
Yellow Book of Lecan, 43. 
Yellow Fever Expedition, Report of. Durham 

and Myers, 45. 
Yellow Fever Prophylaxis. Rubert Boyce, 44. 

Zoega, G. T. English-Icelandic Dictionary, 43. 
Zompolides, Dr. D. A Course of Modern 
Greek, 43. 



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